
rbs<; O i^ i^^O 



Book A/4i 



GopyiiglitW 



CJDP30RIGHT DEPOSIT. 






THE BOYS' OUTDOOR 
VACATION BOOK 



THE BOYS' OUTDOOR 
VACATION BOOK 

A Complete Handbook for Every Boy Fond of 
Life and Recreation in the Open 



^,- BY 

aFhyatt verrill 

Author of "The Amateur Carpenter," "An American Crusoe," etc. 



With over 300 Diagrams by the Author 




NEW YORK 
DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY 
1915 



SK.T.A 1 



Copyright, 1915, by 
DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY 



nC 



APR 23 1915 



CIA398503 
7^^ / / I 



CONTENTS 

PART I— SUMMER 
CHAPTER I 

PAGE 

CAMPING OUT • • ^ • . •. • 3 

Choosing companions. Camp outfits. Provisions. 
Clothing. 

CHAPTER H 

MAKING CAMP ..',•• ^^ 

Selecting a camp site. Building a lean-to. Making 
the beds. Building the fire. Camping with a tent. 
Order in the camp. Simple camp cookery. 

CHAPTER III 

WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING • 39 

Blazed trails. Other trail marks. Signals and sig- 
nalling. 

CHAPTER IV 

EMERGENCY HINTS ^ • ■\ ^"^ 

Making fire without matches. How to render first aid 
to the injured. How to make and use bandages. How 
to make a sling. Injuries to the head. Injuries to 
hands. Injuries to hip. Making tourniquets. Injuries 
to arms and hand. Carrying an injured comrade. 
Miscellaneous hints. 

CHAPTER V 

HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE . . 82 
The compass and how to use it. Using a watch for 
a compass. Finding your way by the North Star. 
Finding the height of objects. Making maps and 
charts. 

CHAPTER VI 

SAVAGE WEAPONS AND HOW TO MAKE THEM . 114 
Indian bows and arrows. Boomerangs. Spears and 
throwing-sticks. 

CHAPTER VII 

TRAPS AND TRAPPING . I39 

Snares. Deadfalls. Box traps. Coop traps. Steel 
traps. Muskrat traps. Turtle traps. 



vi CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VIII 

PAGE 

SKINNING ANIMALS AND TANNING HIDES . . i6i 
Tanning skins with the hair on. Tanning skins with- 
out the hair. How to make moccasins. The Algonquin 
moccasin. The Seminole moccasin. Sioux moccasins. 

CHAPTER IX 

PERMANENT CAMPS -.176 

How to make an Indian tepee. Other permanent 
camps. Wattled huts. Thatching. Making bridges. 
Camp furniture. A simple canvas cot bed. Tables and 
chairs. 

CHAPTER X 

ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 200 

Fancy knots and other rope work. 

CHAPTER XI 

SWIMMING AND DIVING 227 

Swimming floats and springboards. 

CHAPTER XII 
HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE^SMALL BOATS . 240 

CHAPTER XIII 

SAILING ON THE LAND 255 

Sailing carts. How to build and use a glider. 



PART II— WINTER 

CHAPTER XIV 

SNOW SPORTS 287 

Toboggans. Snow snakes. Snowshoes. 

CHAPTER XV 

ICE SPORTS 304 

Making and sailing ice boats. Scooters. Sailing ice 
boats. Skate-sails. Fishing through the ice. 



INTRODUCTION 

Every boy longs to make the most of his 
vacation and to have just as much real fun 
as he possibly can. Unfortunately many boys 
find their vacations, either in summer or win- 
ter, very dull indeed, merely through a lack 
of knowledge of what to do and how to do it. 

This book has been written with the aim 
of showing healthy-minded, red-blooded boys 
just how to enjoy their vacations, the various 
things they can do and how they can employ 
their time profitably and pleasurably by 
making their own camps, traps, boats, weap- 
ons, toys and appliances; how they can cure 
and dress the skins of the animals they kill or 
trap and how they can lead an enjoyable out- 
of-doors life, and while enjoying themselves, 
at the same time acquire a vast deal of prac- 
tical knowledge. 

For the boy who spends his vacation m the 
country, or near the woods, camps and camp- 
ing offer great possibilities. Every boy loves 
to camp, to play Indian or pioneer, to trap 
and to live as near to Nature as possible. It 
is not necessary to go far into the wilderness 
to camp-out, nor to be provided with elabo- 

vii 



viii INTRODUCTION 

rate and expensive camp-equipments, tents, 
guides, etc., in order to enjoy a summer in 
the woods. Any two or three boys can build 
tight, comfortable camps in any patch of 
woodland, can hunt and cook their own game, 
make their fires in true savage style, tan the 
skins of their game, make their own moccasins 
and clothing and their own weapons and 
enjoy all the excitement of following trails 
and making " Injun signs " that most boys 
long for. 

It is a bare and poor country, indeed, that 
does not abound in enough fish, small animals 
and other creatures to make fishing, trapping 
or hunting of some sort possible, and there 
certainly can be no sentimental objection to 
boy campers taking wild life when it is neces- 
sary for food. 

The boy who spends his vacation where 
there are no opportunities for camping out 
can find a great deal of entertainment in 
occupying his time and displaying his in- 
genuity in building bridges, making charts 
and maps, flying model aeroplanes, throwing 
boomerangs, or even constructing a boy- 
carrying glider in which to enjoy all the 
pleasure and exhilaration of aviation without 
any of its risks or dangers. 

The boy who spends his summers at the 



INTRODUCTION ix 

seaside, on lake, or river, v/ill naturally turn 
to the water as a source of entertainment. 
Here he can swim, dive, sail, row or paddle, 
and if he builds his own craft, constructs his 
own spring-boards or diving-floats and learns 
to rig and handle his own boats his pleasure 
will be greatly enhanced and a great deal of 
valuable and practical knowledge will be 
obtained. 

Even in mid-winter a vacation may be spent 
largely out-of-doors, for with toboggans, skis, 
snowshoes, skates and ice-yachts there are 
abundant sources of sport and entertainment. 
All these things are easy to make and many 
dull evenings and rainy days may be trans- 
formed to profitable and pleasurable epochs 
if they are spent in constructing such objects. 

The woods, in winter, are a wonderful 
revelation to any boy who has not visited 
them, and a tramp on snowshoes or skis over 
hill and dale will disclose a world that most 
boys have never dreamed of. The boy that 
is fond of Nature and her wild creatures will 
find a great interest in tracking the various 
wild animals by the trails they leave in the 
snow, while in many places a considerable 
amount of pocket money may be earned by 
trapping animals for their furs. Fishing 
through the ice is a sport familiar to many 



X INTRODUCTION 

country boys, but comparatively unknown 
to most city boys, and yet easy of accomplish- 
ment wherever winter covers ponds, lakes or 
streams with a coating of ice. Even camp- 
ing in winter is most enjoyable and it will be 
a surprise to many boy-campers to find how 
warm, comfortable and cozy a boy-made win- 
ter camp can be. 

All these things and many more are fully 
described in the pages of this book, and all 
are practical, simple and within the province 
of every boy who can use his hands, feet and 
eyes. The author has camped, tramped, 
hunted and sailed from earliest boyhood and 
has personally performed every feat and ac- 
complished everything described in these 
pages, and hence the volume is in reality a 
record of actual experiences. 

The illustrations are prepared with special 
reference to simplicity, accuracy and detail, 
and each and every step in the construction 
of every object or appliance described, is fully 
illustrated. 

The author has confined himself to the de- 
scriptions of only the simplest, cheapest and 
most practical things and every objectionable, 
dangerous or impractical matter has been 
omitted. 

The book is intended as a guide, companion 



INTRODUCTION xi 

and helpmate for boys during their spare 
hours, holidays and vacations, and if it leads 
to a greater enjoyment of outdoor life, a 
better knowledge of Nature, a greater con- 
fidence in the boys' own resources and adds 
to the practical knowledge and training of 
its readers, the mission of the work will be 
accomplished. 



PART I 

SUMMER 



CHAPTER I 

CAMPING OUT 
Choosing Companions 

It is hard work for a boy to have a good 
time by himself, no matter how or where he 
spends his time; but it is far better to be 
alone than to have the wrong sort of com- 
panions. If you are going to camp out the 
matter of choosing the proper boys to ac- 
company you is of the utmost importance, 
for a camp to be pleasant and successful de- 
pends upon each of the campers doing his 
share of work and helping out willingly and 
pleasantly. Although this is absolutely essen- 
tial to an enjoyable outing of any sort, yet it 
is given but little thought by most boys, and 
as a result many trips or vacations are ruined 
and the boys' outings spoiled when every- 
thing would have gone smoothly and every- 
one would have had a bully time if care had 
been taken in choosing the right boys for the 
trip. 

In the first place, be sure and do not take 
any boys who are shiftless, hot-tempered, im- 

3 



4 CAMPING OUT 

patient or inclined to shirk. In every camp 
there will be trials and disappointments, bad 
weather and hard work. If these are taken 
good-naturedly and smilingly and are over- 
come they will prove but an added zest to 
camp life. Make the best of everything and 
do your share is the first and invariable rule 
of life in the woods. When your companions 
are selected, the next step is to choose a 
leader, for without someone to direct, your 
trip will be a failure. The leader should be 
the boy who has had the most experience in 
woodcraft or outdoor life, and if no member 
of the party excels in these matters, select the 
one who has the most practical knowledge, 
the calmest and best judgment, and to whom 
you would look for leadership if you were 
choosing a captain of a ball-nine or any other 
club or team. 

Having once selected your leader you 
should follow his directions implicitly unless 
he shows himself incompetent, ignorant or 
overbearing. It is a good plan, however, to 
always hold a council or meeting of the mem- 
bers of the party where there is any question 
as to matters concerning the outing, and if 
the majority do not agree with the leader, he 
should be manly enough to waive his author- 
ity and accede to their wishes, unless he feels 



CAMPING OUT 5 

that there is some good and sufficient reason 
for not doing so. 

From the other members of the party the 
cook, hunter and others should be selected, 
for if each boy has certain duties and sticks 
to them, it will save a lot of delay, trouble 
and friction. When everyone is tired and 
hungry and camp is to be made it is very 
vexatious to try and decide v^ho is to cook, 
w^ho is to chop wood, and so on, when each 
one longs to put the work on the other fel- 
low's shoulders. 

Of course each boy selected for a certain 
duty should have an occasional change in 
his work, for even the simplest duties of camp 
life become tiresome if they are carried on 
day after day until they seem like work. Any 
decent set of boys will be able and willing to 
adjust such simple matters, however, and to 
exchange places and duties now and then, 
while everyone should help in every duty 
whenever possible. 

Camp Outfits 

The question of an outfit depends a great 
deal upon the tastes of the boys, the locality 
where you are to camp, the sort of camping 
you intend to do, the amount you can carry, 



6 CAMPING OUT 

and last but by no means least, the amount 
you can afford to spend. There are so many 
different kinds of outings ordinarily classed 
as '' camping out " that it is almost impossible 
to make hard and fast rules as to an outfit. 
Of course if you intend to camp within easy 
reach of a road or on the borders of a lake 
or river, and are to use tents or have a per- 
manent camp, almost any amount of luxuries 
and conveniences may be taken along; but the 
best fun is in camping here and there, tramp- 
ing from place to place, stopping in the 
v^oods as fancy suits and carrying bed, board 
and everything else upon your backs. A good 
v^oodsman or an experienced camper can get 
along pretty well with only a knife and an 
ax for tools, a tin plate for cooking and eating 
utensils, a box of matches and the clothing 
he wears; but to get on with such an outfit 
is beyond the powers of most boys and re- 
quires years of practice and life in the wilds. 

For a trip, where temporary camps are 
to be made, I do not advise more than 
four boys, and it is far better for each mem- 
ber to carry his own individual outfit than 
to have one outfit for the crowd and try to 
divide it up for transportation. In such cases 
each boy usually feels that he is carrying 
more than his share and there will always be 



CAMPING OUT 7 

dissatisfaction in packing up and distributing 
the outfit evenly, especially towards the end 
of the trip. The first and most important 
part of a camp outfit is the pack. There are 
a great many styles and makes of packs on 
the market and each section of the country 




has its favourite, but I have tried nearly all of 
them and have found the simple canvas pack, 
with shoulder and breast straps, by far the 
most satisfactory for all-around use, — espe- 
cially for summer camping and for boys' pur- 
poses. These packs (Fig. i) may be pur- 
chased ready-made from dealers in camping 
and sporting goods and cost about $3.00 each; 
but they may be easily made at home from 



8 CAMPING OUT 

strong cotton drill, khaki, or light canvas. Such 
a pack for boys' use should be about 14x20 
inches square and 6 inches thick. It will easily 
hold everything you require for a camping 
trip and will weigh as much, when filled, as you 
can conveniently carry on a day's tramp. 

Now for the goods to fill the pack. A first- 
class ax weighing about two pounds and 
v/ith a 14-inch handle is perhaps the most 
important item. A machete — the long, heavy- 
bladed knife of tropical America (Fig. 2) — is 
very handy and will often prove more useful 
than an ax, especially for chopping brush and 
small trees, blazing trails, splitting firewood 
and for various other purposes. A machete, 
in the hands of one accustomed to its use, can 
be made to serve almost any purpose from 
that of a toothpick to an ax, and even large 
trees may be easily felled with a machete 
when you learn how to use it skilfully. If 
more than two boys are going camping I 
advise only two axes, and machetes for the 
others. They are cheap — costing with leather 
sheath about $2.00 — and are lighter and 
easier to carry than axes, for they can be 
hung to a belt like a sword or from a strap or 
sash over the right shoulder and under the left 
arm. For the rest of your outfit you will 
need the following articles for each boy: 



CAMPING OUT 9 

A waterproof cylindrical match-safe. 

A combination fork and knife or a common 
steel knife and fork (Fig. 3). 

A teaspoon and a tablespoon. 

A good ax-stone, preferably a carborundum 
stone. 

A bag containing thread, needles, wax, but- 
tons, shoelaces, pins, etc. 

A roll or hank of good strong linen, or 
braided cotton, twine. 

About one hundred feet of light, strong, 
rope (braided is the best). This is only re- 
quired for the party as a whole and is not 
needed for each boy. 

Fish hooks, lines and sinkers. 

A reliable pocket-compass. 

A good sheath-knife (a sailor's knife is the 
best). 

A pocket knife. 

A folding rubber or collapsible drinking 
cup. 

A tin cup and deep tin pie plate. 

Half a dozen candles. 

Some assorted or mixed wire nails, from 3 
to 12 penny. 

All of these are important articles and will 
be found almost essential to enjoyable camp- 
ing. 

The rope should be strong enough to bear 



10 CAMPING OUT 

the weight of any boy in the party and 
should invariably be kept neatly coiled and 
ready for use, as it may save your life more 
than once, and v^ill prove useful in a hundred 
places and a thousand ways. 

In addition to the above list you will, of 
course, provide your hairbrush and combs, 
toothbrush, etc., but don't clutter up your 
pack with a lot of useless toilet articles and 
similar things. A small pocket mirror will be 
handy, for if you get something in your eye 
you will find a mirror very useful; it is also 
valuable for signalling and it is more con- 
venient for a looking-glass than a pool of 
quiet water, although the last will answer 
very well. Every party of boy campers 
should carry a medicine-case containing sim- 
ple remedies, such as quinine, rhubarb, bicar- 
bonate of soda, bismuth-subnitrate, chlorate of 
potash, Warburg's tincture. Sun cholera tab- 
lets, etc. There should also be a roll or two of 
antiseptic bandages, a box of zinc-ointment, 
vaseline and some permanganate of potash, 
and if you are going into a wild country or 
more than a few hours' tramp from a settle- 
ment or house, be sure and have some sort 
of a stimulant along. This need not be 
alcoholic and I advise any boy who is going 
camping to have his family physician select 



CAMPING OUT 11 

and label the various medicines and furnish 
written directions for their use. The most 
convenient form to carry them is in the little 
pocket leather medicine-cases that cost from 
$i.oo to $1.50 each. 

You may camp, tramp and hunt for years 
and never require medicines, stimulants or 
bandages; but accidents v^ill happen now 
and then and if you are almost drowned or 
faint from loss of blood or a sprained ankle or 
other cause, a stimulant may save a life. The 
permanganate of potash, if dissolved in water, 
will relieve the pain from insect bites and ivy 
poison and in a country where poisonous 
snakes are found it is the best and safest 
remedy known for their bites. Antiseptic 
tablets are also good things to have along 
on any trip, for a very simple cut, sprain, 
bruise or scratch may result seriously if 
neglected, and an ounce of prevention is worth 
many tons of cure in the woods. Old camp- 
ers and woodsmen may poke fun at you for 
carrying your medicine-kit; but it takes up 
little space, it is little trouble and if occasion 
does arise for the use of the medicine it will 
prove more valuable than all the other things 
put together. I should never have written 
this book if I had not carried these simple 
articles on my trips, for on more than one 



12 CAMPING OUT 

occasion my life has depended upon them 
and more than one old woodsman, who pooh- 
poohed the outfit, has had occasion to thank 
God that I carried it along. 

Always have one boy, and one only, carry 
the emergency outfit both day and night, un- 
less every member of the party is supplied 
with his own kit, and allow no one to ad- 
minister or fool with the medicines unless in 
case of real necessity. This will result in 
your always knowing where the things are 
when you want them, and when you do want 
them, you'll want them quick. 

There are numerous other simple, light and 
inexpensive articles that will make camp-life 
more enjoyable and which you may or may 
not take as you see fit. Among these are 
folding lanterns (Fig. 4), of mica and alumi- 
num, costing $1.50 each and which weigh but 
a few ounces and fold into a flat, square pack- 
age and are very useful; Japanese mess-kits 
(Fig. 5), which cost $1.75, and being made of 
aluminum and folding into very small com- 
pass, are most convenient; campfire grates 
(Fig. 6), which cost $1.00 and save many a 
spilled cup of cofTee or burned pancake and 
various other handy inventions. 

A very useful and inexpensive article which 
I always carry is a pocket mechanical lighter 



CAMPING OUT 13 

(Fig. 7). If matches are wet or lost you can 
light your fire with this and it will prove 
of great value many times over, for while a 
boy can light a fire with a simple flint and 
steel or even by means of two sticks, as will 
be described later, such methods take time 
and patience. 

The rubber, cylindrical match-boxes are 
the best form, as they are waterproof and 
float if dropped overboard; but if you do not 
care to buy one of these you can make a very 
good substitute from an old paper shot-gun 
shell. Cut the metal end from one shell and 
burn out the paper lining in a fire. This 
brass cap will fit snugly over another shell 
and will make a first-rate waterproof box; 
but it has the disadvantage of not holding 
many matches (Fig. 8). 

The pie-plate and cup are all the cooking 
utensils really needed, for coffee can be made 
in the cup or eggs may be boiled in it, while 
by splitting the end of a stick, slipping it over 
the edge of the plate and driving a nail 
through it, a first-class stew- and frying-pan 
can be rigged up in a few moments (Fig. 9). 

Provisions 

The amount and kind of provisions that 
you take on a camping trip depend largely 



14 CAMPING OUT 

Upon where you are going, whether you will 
depend upon hunting or fishing or buying 
from farmers, or whether you intend to carry 
everything you will need. It is, therefore, im- 
possible to furnish any really complete and 
hard and fast list of what will be required; 
but among the following you will find a num- 
ber of good things that are readily carried 
and cooked, while such things as coffee, sugar, 
salt, lard or cottolene, pepper, bacon, salt 
pork, etc., are, of course, essential to every 
camper. 

Erbswurst — This is a compound of pea- 
meal, meat and vegetables compressed into a 
sausage-shaped roll and adopted by nearly 
all European armies as the nearest approach 
to a perfect food. It costs $0.32 per pound 
and may be eaten raw or may be cooked in a 
great variety of ways. 

Soup Tablets come in various styles and 
are very handy and useful, for by simply dis- 
solving them in hot water, a steaming cup 
of delicious soup may be prepared in a few 
moments. 

Dried Vegetables are the best quality of 
vegetables evaporated and compressed. They 
are equal to ten or twelve times their weight 
of fresh vegetables, are easily prepared and 
may be purchased at $0.20 per package and 



CAMPING OUT 15 

are furnished in the following varieties: pota- 
toes, sliced beans, spinach, cabbage, celery, 
onions, leeks, carrots, turnips, etc. 

Grystalose is more compact and better than 
sugar, as one ounce equals in sweetening 
power one ton of cane sugar. It costs $0.25 
per vial or $1.00 an ounce. 

Dried Eggs, called " Truegg," is a delicious 
and convenient article. It is made of per- 
fectly fresh eggs, beaten and evaporated, and 
simply has to be dissolved in water before 
using. It makes perfect omelettes, scrambled 
eggs and other dishes, and will keep in any 
climate. One pound is equal to four dozen 
fresh eggs and is far more convenient 
to carry. It costs $0.75 for a half-pound 
tin. 

Army Bread, or " Hardtack," is the best 
form of wheat food, while ordinary canned 
goods, corned beef, braised beef, veal-loaf, 
tongue and boneless chicken are all good 
things to have in camp. 

Condensed Milk, or Evaporated milk, is 
good, but the dried milk known as '' True- 
milk " is better and easier to carry about. 

The following has been decided upon by 
many prominent campers as the quantity of 
food required for one person for two weeks. 
Of course boys do not consume quite so much 



16 CAMPING OUT 

as grown people; but it is better to have too 
much, rather than too little. 

Flour (or equivalents), 6 lbs.; corn meal, 
2 lbs.; beans, i>^ lbs.; Erbswurst, Ya lb.; soup 
tablets, >^lb. ; sugar, 2 lbs.; baking pov^der, Vk 
lb.; coffee, V^ lb.; butter, i lb.; salt pork, 2>4 
lbs.; evaporated milk, lYz lbs.; dried fruits, i 
lb.; salt, M lb.; chocolate or cocoa, Ya lb.; tea, 
Ya lb.; bacon, i>^ lbs.; dried potatoes, i lb.; 
other dried vegetables, Y^ lb.; dried eggs, \Ya 
lbs.; shelled nuts, Y^ lb. 

Sweet, or milk, chocolate is one of the best 
of foods and should always be carried. A 
small piece of this will keep one from hunger 
and fatigue in a remarkable way, and I have 
frequently tramped from daylight until dark 
with no other food than a cake of milk choco- 
late. Nuts are also very sustaining and pea- 
nut butter or " Peanolia '' is excellent. Flour 
and other dry groceries should be carried in 
waterproof bags as tins are cumbersome and 
heavy and pack badly. Bags of this sort can 
be easily made from waterproof canvas which 
can be purchased at almost any store. 

Clothing 

For clothing you should provide the stout- 
est, most comfortable things possible; but 



CAMPING OUT 17 

even in midsummer the underclothing should 
be of wool, for in the woods one is often wet 
and dry by turns, and cotton undergarments 
are very bad under such conditions. Stout, 
easy shoes should be worn and moccasins 
will be found very comfortable about camp. 
Have hob-nails in your boots if you are going 
to a mountainous district or intend to ford 
streams and carry along at least one extra 
change of undergarments and several extra 
pairs of socks or stockings. Don't forget 
boot grease, it will save blisters and cracked 
shoes and will keep your feet dry. Blankets 
are not essential, although very comfortable 
and useful; but I have always found that a 
bed of springy hemlock or fir boughs and a 
well-built "lean-to" at the end of a day's 
tramp were comfortable and warm enough 
without bed clothing. A light, all-wool 
blanket and a very light rubber blanket are 
excellent to carry along, however, and they 
do not add much to the weight of your load. 
If the rubber blanket has a slit in the centre, 
—with the edges of the slit bound with tape, 
—it will serve as a waterproof cape or poncho 
by slipping your head through the opening. 
When I first went camping in northern 
New Hampshire, a boy of sixteen was sup- 
posed to carry a pack weighing fifty pounds; 



18 CAMPING OUT 

but I think that for real fun that is too heavy 
and that thirty-five pounds is about the limit, 
while, if it is even less, your shoulders will be 
saved many an ache and you will enjoy your 
trip far more. 

In those days of which I speak, none of 
the modern conveniences of camping were 
to be had at any price, and we were obliged 
to carry eggs, vegetables and other food in 
bulk, which added a great deal of weight to 
cur packs. If you intend to carry guns and 
ammunition you will do well to carry a pack 
as light as possible, for a gun weighs a great 
deal at the end of a day's long tramp, — espe- 
cially if no game has been seen, — while in 
any decent sort of camping country you 
should be able to help out your larder quite 
a little by shooting and therefore you will not 
require so many ready-made provisions. 

Of course I am taking it for granted that 
my readers are ignorant of camping and camp 
life, and must learn how to build their camps 
and fires, blaze their trails and wrest a living 
and the necessities of life, as well as many 
of its luxuries and comforts, from the woods 
themselves; but I will leave these matters 
for other chapters. 



CHAPTER II 

MAKING CAMP 

After your camping trip is planned, and you 
have secured the necessary outfit and chosen 
your companions the next most important 
step is to decide upon the site for your camp 
and the sort of shelter you intend to use. Of 
course you may use tents and if you are 
planning to camp out near home, or in a 
permanent place for the entire vacation, a 
tent v^ill do very w^ell, — there is no denying 
they are acceptable and convenient in bad 
weather, — but to enjoy camping out to the 
limit the campers should make their own shel- 
ters. Moreover, even the smallest and lightest 
tents are clumsy and heavy to carry, and every 
ounce added to your pack will feel like so 
many pounds at the end of a day's hike. 

It is so easy and so much fun to build your 
own shelters that tents are only a nuisance 
and I advise every boy-camper to make his 
own camps. Any two boys can put up a 
" lean-to " or similar shack in a short time, 
and if well-constructed, such a shelter will 
keep you as dry and warm, save in the heavi- 

19 



20 MAKING CAMP 

est rains, as any tent. If you are to have a 
permanent camp to use season after season 
or are even to spend an entire vacation in one 
camp, a log-camp is good; but even if you 
decide to build such a hut, a lean-to will be 
found very useful to live in while you are 
building the more substantial cabin. 

If you are going on a canoe trip, or can 
ship your outfit by train or wagon to your 
camping site, and do decide to take a tent 
along, choose the lightest and smallest that 
will accommodate your party. Personally, I 
prefer a wall-tent. One of this type, 7/^ feet 
square, will easily sleep four boys and will 
weigh less than 15 pounds. In waterproof 
duck such a tent will cost from $7 to $8 
when new. Plain duck will cost almost as 
much, but will leak badly in rainy weather, 
unless used with a fly, which is a grear 
nuisance. 

Many boys might like the tepee or Indian 
wigwam; but it is a heavy tent for the amount 
of room inside. Owing to its circular, conical 
form, there is a great deal of waste space and 
there is often considerable difficulty in getting 
enough long, straight poles with which to 
erect it. For a permanent camp, or for pure 
fun, wigwams are excellent and will be de- 
scribed in a subsequent chapter. 



MAKING CAMP 21 

Selecting a Camp Site 

The selection of a proper spot for a camp 
is a most important matter. Many a camp 
is a failure owing to improper surroundings, 
and any old or experienced camper will select 
the most favourable spot by intuition. It is 
not expected that boys can do this until they 
have had a good deal of experience, however, 
and it is far wiser to spend an hour or two 
looking about and choosing a really suitable 
spot than to build a camp wherever you hap- 
pen to stop, without regard to its surround- 
ings. A spot may seem very favourable while 
the weather is pleasant; but a sudden shower 
in the night may flood the camp, unless you 
have provided for such a contingency before- 
hand. 

Select your camp-site with reference to 
wood, water and drainage, as well as in a 
locality where there is plenty of material for 
building your shelter. Choose a dry, level 
place a few feet higher than the surrounding 
ground. Usually a good location may be 
found near some lake, pond, river or stream, 
where the woods are fairly open and the 
trees of good size, and where the earth slopes 
enough to insure the water running away 
from your camp in case of a rain. A small 



22 MAKING CAMP 

bluff, overlooking a lake or river, is a good 
location and there should be dead or fallen 
timber close at hand, which will save much 
weary work at chopping and attempting to 
burn green wood. Evergreens are an im- 
portant factor in building a lean-to, for 
they furnish both roof and beds. If birch- 
bark is abundant, it will prove a very useful 
article for making roofs, starting fires and 
for constructing various dishes and utensils, — 
tea or coffee may even be made in a birch- 
bark utensil or water may be boiled in an 
extemporised birch-bark pot. 

Building a Lean-to 

To build a lean-to is one of the first and 
most important things to learn when going 
camping, for this is the simplest, most prac- 
tical and quickest shelter known for a tem- 
porary one-night camp. If well and sub- 
stantially built a lean-to will do for a per- 
manent camp; but this type of shelter is 
particularly adapted to night shelters where 
a new camp is built at the close of each day's 
tramp. 

Although it is not at all difficult to make 
this popular shelter yet I advise you to prac- 
tice in woods near home until you are expert. 



MAKING CAMP 23 

before starting off on your camping trip. 
This will save lots of time and trouble and 
you will know just the sort of materials to 
use, where to find them and how to use them 
and every camp you make will be an improve- 
ment on the last. 

After you have selected your camp-site, 
look about for a couple of strong trees stand- 
ing from eight to ten feet apart with branches 
from six to eight feet above the ground. 
Having found these, clear the ground between 
them and for some distance on each side. By 
bending over the bushes and young saplings 
with one hand and chopping through the 
strained fibres, even good-sized trees may be 
easily cut off with a few sharp blows of the 
ax or machete. As soon as the ground is 
cleared, cut three or four poles about twelve 
feet long and at least three inches in diameter 
at the large ends. Place one of these across 
the two trees, resting the ends in crotches of 
the limbs where they join the trunks (if your 
trees do not have any suitable limbs, the poles 
may be lashed on with ropes or withes), 
(Fig. i). Next place two other poles against 
this cross-piece with the butt-ends resting on 
the ground about eight feet behind the two 
trees (Fig. 2). Be sure that these two poles 
are level and parallel, and place a number of 



24 MAKING CAMP 

smaller poles between them and parallel with 
them (Fig. 3). All of these poles should have 
the branches trimmed off in such a way as to 
leave stubs two or three inches long. Across 
these poles, and resting against the stubs, a 
number of lighter poles should be laid. The 
lean-to will now appear in skeleton-form as 
shown in Fig. 4, and the next step is to 
thatch it. 

While one or two boys are getting up the 
framework, another should be gathering fire- 
wood and preparing meals, while another 
should be cutting and bringing in soft, thick 
tips of hemlock or balsam boughs. 

Select the largest and flattest of these 
" fans " and beginning at the back of the 
framework, hook the hemlock boughs over 
the cross-pieces in layers, with each layer 
overlapping the one below it (Fig. 5). 

Continue this process until the entire roof 
is covered, and if it looks like rain, thatch a 
second layer over the first. If windy or 
stormy, place additional poles on top of all, 
and if necessary, bind them in position with 
hemlock roots or withes. These will keep 
the thatch firmly in place, even in severe 
storms. If you wish, and have plenty of 
time, the sides of the shelter may also be 
thatched in a similar manner to the roof. 



MAKING CAMP 



25 



and you will then have a very cozy little 
house. 

Sometimes two lean-tos are built facing- 
each other, about six feet apart, and this 




^'i'^liiifW^i?^^'^^^^''^'^-^^ 



arrangement makes a very comfortable camp, 
as the fire may be built between the two, thus 
lighting and warming both. 

If you cannot find evergreen trees, peel the 



26 MAKING CAMP 

bark from birches and use these sheets of 
bark-like shingles, holding them in place by 
light poles laid across them from side to side. 
Sometimes hemlock bark will peel readily and 
the large slabs of this strong bark make ex- 
cellent roofs, especially for a permanent camp. 
To. peel the bark of a birch, hemlock or other 
tree, make two cuts almost completely around 
the tree, one as high as you can reach, the 
other near the ground; connect these cuts by 
perpendicular incisions, joining the others at 
their ends (Fig. 6), and by starting the edge 
of the bark the whole piece will come off 
easily. The narrow strip of bark left on the 
tree will serve to carry the sap and prevent 
the tree from dying. If there are stubs, 
branches or twigs on the space you are to 
strip off, they should be cut down flush with 
the tree before peeling. This will prevent the 
bark from tearing at the projections and will 
merely leave small holes in the piece you 
take off. 

After your lean-to is built, the ground 
inside should be smoothed and softened. Pull 
up all small twigs and roots, remove the dead 
leaves and with the back of your ax, — used 
like an adze by swinging it between your 
legs, — knock down any knobs or small hum- 
mocks of the earth. These may seem trivial, 



MAKING CAMP 27 

but if you lie upon two or three of the little 
projections all night you will feel as if you 
had been stretched upon a rack by morning. 

Making the Beds 

When the ground is thoroughly level and 
soft you can proceed to make your beds. To 
do this, chop down a young hemlock, balsam 
or other evergreen tree and pull off the soft 
'' fans " or flattened tips of the branches. 
Those that are too tough to pull off by hand 
are too large and too coarse for your use. 
Lay these criss-cross against the handle of 
your ax or along a light pole and in this way 
you can carry a great amount of twigs at one 
time. 

On the floor of your lean-to, place a thick 
layer of the fans, with the convex sides up 
and the butts of the stems toward the foot 
of the bed. Now thatch this over with more 
fans by thrusting the butt ends through the 
first layer at a slight angle toward the head 
of the bed, so that the soft tips will curve 
toward the foot of the bed, and be sure to 
make the head of the bed away from the 
opening of the shack with the foot toward the 
opening. Over this bed spread your blankets, 
if you have them; but even without a cover- 



28 MAKING CAMP 

ing of any sort you will find this a surpris- 
ingly soft, springy and fragrant bed. 

Building the Fire 

The camp now being completed and ready 
for the night you may turn your attention 
to the fire, for no doubt the cook, — if he is a 
novice,— is having plenty of troubles of his 
own, especially if the woods are heavy and 
damp or if there has been a recent rain. To 
build a good fire in the woods is not so easy 
as the story-books would have us believe and 
requires quite a little skill and knowledge. 
Indians always build a small fire and tend it 
constantly, but the white trappers and hunt- 
ers usually make a roaring fire and trust to 
the coals keeping up enough heat to warm 
the camp over night and to start a new fire 
in the morning, with perhaps an occasional 
log thrown on in the night, if the campers 
happen to wake up. Personally I prefer to 
follow a middle course; I do not like to spend 
most of the night huddling over and nursing 
a tiny blaze like the Indian, nor do I approve 
of wasting a vast amount of fuel — to say 
nothing of alternately freezing and roasting — 
like the white woodsman. 

With a medium-sized fire the heat is under 



MAKING CAMP 29 

better control, and you will soon learn to 
wake up and replenish the blaze at regular 
intervals. 

To start a campfire, first gather a number 
of light, dry chips and twigs. If there are 
birches and evergreens, gather a lot of birch 
bark (this will burn even if green), and some 
dry, resinous branches of the evergreens, such 
as are always to be found sticking out from 
these trees, whether living or dead. Make a 
little crisscross pile of your driest and most 
inflammable kindlings and shreds of bark, and 
lighting a piece of birch bark, thrust it 
underneath the kindlings and nurse and pro- 
tect the little flame until it catches and burns 
briskly. Do not smother it with too much 
fuel, and do not let it die down too far, but 
add bark and twigs, little by little, and grad- 
ually increase the size of the twigs until a 
good lively fire is going. When the blaze is 
well started, place two stout, green, hard- 
wood logs on either side. These should be of 
oak, maple or hickory, and should be about 
eight feet long and at least eight inches in 
diameter, and they should be placed near to- 
gether at one end so as to support various 
sized pots and pans. By having these back- 
logs long, and double, they can be pushed 
up as the fire eats them away. If you are 



so MAKING CAMP 

building a fire for warmth and cheer, do 
not try to cook over the main fire, but when 
a good mass of coals has accumulated, rake 
out a heap and cook over these, adding fresh 
ones and now and then a few pieces of wood 
as required. The fire should burn sticks sev- 
eral inches in diameter and three or four 
feet long, if for warmth, and if placed six or 
eight feet in front of the lean-to it will throw 
enough heat inside to warm it up in first- 
class shape. 

When ready to turn in for the night, place 
two or three heavy hardwood logs on the 
fire, and these will smoulder and give out 
quite a little heat all night, and if you should 
wake up and stir the fire now and then, you 
will sleep as warmly and soundly, and far 
more refreshingly, than in your own bed at 
home. 

The best firewoods are birch, beech, maple, 
oak, ash, chestnut and hickory, and each is 
good for a special purpose. Chestnut gives 
good coals and heat but does not last long; 
oak burns slowly with good heat; hickory 
makes a fine bed of coals but does not blaze 
readily, it has good lasting qualities but is 
apt to smoulder out, unless mixed with lighter 
wood; beech and maple are good heating 
woods, but the best of all for heat, blaze and 



MAKING CAMP 31 

all-around use, is birch. This will burn when 
green or wet and will give a bright, cheerful 
blaze and lasts well, but it should be mixed 
with harder woods for the night fire. 

You will sometimes find great difiiculty 
in lighting your fire in wet weather or in 
the rain. An Indian can do it more readily 
than a white man, but his success lies in al- 
ways carrying some dry twigs or bark with 
him, or in knowing just where to find them 
in the woods. I advise every boy camper to 
carry dry birch bark and resinous twigs in his 
pack at all times, in readiness for the rainy 
day that will surely come sooner or later. 

In wet weather, it is a good plan also to 
build a good-sized fire on the spot where you 
intend to place your camp. This will dry 
out and warm the ground, and after the coals 
and cinders are raked and swept away will 
leave a nice spot on which to make your beds. 

Camping with a Tent 

If you intend to use a tent you will pro- 
ceed to go into camp quite differently. Find 
a spot where there are two trees ten or 
twelve feet apart and clear up the ground 
between and around them as already de- 
scribed. Make a number of tent pegs by 



32 MAKING CAMP 

placing a young maple, or birch sapling, about 
an inch in diameter, across a log, and by 
two sharp blows at an angle cut off sections at 
least eighteen inches long. These long pegs 
will keep the ropes from slipping off and will 
grip the ground better than short ones. 
When you have enough pegs made, cut a 
crotched stick about ten feet long. Run a 
rope through the ridge of your tent and 
fasten it between the two trees selected. 
Draw the rope as tight as possible and do 
not be discouraged if it sags, for this will be 
remedied by the crotched stick after the tent 
is pegged down. Stake down the four cor- 
ners of the tent and be sure to get them 
square and just the right distances from the 
centre and from one another, to make the 
tent hang smoothly. Then proceed with 
the rest of the pegs and finally wedge the 
crotched stick under the rope just outside the 
tent. If a few stubs of branches are left on 
this it will come in handy to hang things on. 
Sometimes you will have trouble driving the 
pegs in rocky ground. In such cases drive 
them at a sharp angle and pile flat rocks on 
top. They will then hold even in a gale. 
Make your beds as in the lean-to, and you 
will be snug and cozy even in the worst 
weather. 



MAKING CAMP 88 

Order in the Camp 

I have always found it a wise plan to go 
about camping in a regular and methodical 
order. This saves confusion and time and 
prevents losing various articles. Have all 
your cooking utensils and food and fuel ready 
to your hand before commencing to cook. 
Stick a few light poles in the ground and 
bend them over the fireplace so that they 
will serve to hang pots on, and rinse your 
pots and pans. The fire between the logs 
will throw the heat straight up and in fifteen 
or twenty minutes the meal should be ready. 
While eating have some water boiling for 
dish-washing, and be sure and wash your 
dishes just as soon as the meal is finished. 
Then you should pack away the dishes neatly 
in readiness for the next meal, and you will 
feel free to laze around and enjoy yourselves 
without the thought that there is still work to 
be done. 

I take it for granted that my boy campers — 
or at least the cook of the party — will know 
something of simple cooking before starting 
ofT, but if you do not, you had better get 
your mother, sister or the hired cook to give 
you a few lessons. It is much harder to tell 
you how to cook than for you to learn in 



^4 MAKING CAMP 

this way, but I will try and describe a few 
cooking wrinkles that may help you in your 
camp life. 

Simple Camp Cookery 

Nothing is much easier to cook than the 
game and fish that you may obtain from 
woods and waters on your trip, and yet even 
these things require some knowledge. Camp- 
ers usually have good appetites, and after a 
hard day's tramp almost anything in the line 
of food will be acceptable. Nevertheless well- 
cooked food is far more healthy and better 
than half-cooked or overcooked edibles and 
even if you do not miss the seasoning and 
flavour of your home cooking, yet the camp 
meals will prove far more satisfactory if 
well-seasoned and well-cooked. Most game 
should be skinned and usually small game, 
such as rabbits, squirrels, etc., are best broiled 
over the hot coals. To broil a rabbit or 
squirrel, first dress and skin the animal care- 
fully and remove all clots of blood or bruised 
flesh. Cut off and throw away the head and 
feet. Split into two pieces by cutting through 
the backbone. Spit each piece on a hardwood 
stick and hold over the coals until slightly 
seared; turn over, and sear the other side. 



MAKING CAMP S5 

Sprinkle with salt and pepper, and then cook 
slowly over the coals until done, turning from 
time to time until both sides are cooked 
equally. 

To broil birds, pick as usual; open along 
the back in order to clean them; sprinkle with 
salt and pepper, and broil slowly over the 
coals. 

Slices of venison or beef may also be broiled 
in the same manner as the small animals. 

Sonietimes the manner of cooking game 
may be varied by baking or broiling. An 
excellent way to bake fish, birds and small game 
is as follows: Cover the birds, fish or animal, 
with a thick layer of clay and place in the 
midst of a hot fire. Cover with coals, and in 
about an hour rake out the clay mass (which 
will be baked hard), break it open, and your 
meat will come out beautifully cooked. When 
using this method do not try to skin or pick 
the game, for the skin or feathers will stick 
to the clay and peel ofT when the latter is 
broken open. 

To stew rabbits, or other small creatures, 
cut them into several pieces by removing the 
legs from the body at the joints and cutting 
the body into two or more pieces. Place these 
in a pot, cover with water, add a little rice, a 
few dried vegetables, a soup tablet or two (if 



36 MAKING CAMP 

you have them), season to taste with pepper 
and salt and boil until tender. // you wish 
fried or roast rabbit you can proceed in the 
same way until the water comes to a boil, 
then remove and place in a frying pan or bak- 
ing pan. Pork or bacon is the best grease to 
use in frying when on a camping trip. It may 
surprise you to learn that muskrats are fine 
eating. If the musk glands are not broken 
or injured the meat will not have the least 
musky flavour, but it is always best to boil 
them in water a few moments before frying, 
broiling or baking. 

All the turtles, except the musk turtles, are 
good eating if properly cooked, and even the 
wood tortoises are toothsome, although there 
is not much meat on them. To cook turtles, 
first kill them by placing in a pot of boiling 
water. As soon as dead remove and let cool. 
Lay the turtle on its back and with ax or 
machete crack the joint where the bottom 
shell joins the upper one. Pull off the bottom 
shell, remove entrails and gall bladder, cut off 
the head and skin the legs, at the same time 
removing the toes and outer coating of shell, 
which will be loosened by the boiling water. 
Place the turtle in a pot of fresh hot water 
and boil until all the meat has left the bones. 
Remove the bones and add water, a few 



MAKING CAMP 37 

dried vegetables, pepper and salt, and boil 
until the vegetables are done. 

To cook dried vegetables is an easy matter, 
for all that is necessary is to place in boiling 
water, stir and add salt and pepper. Dried 
potatoes also make first-rate griddle cakes, 
as follows: After they are thoroughly cooked, 
mash them with a fork or piece of flattened 
wood. Mix in some flour, moisten until 
they cling together well; pat into cakes; 
sprinkle with flour, and fry in pork fat or 
cottolene. To make regular flapjacks place 
two pints of flour in a pan, add two heaping 
teaspoonfuls of baking powder, one level tea- 
spoonful of salt, two or three spoonfuls of 
dried tgg, and mix thoroughly while dry. 
Add six heaping dessertspoonfuls of evapo- 
rated milk and water (or the equivalent 
amount of dried milk) and mix until a thick, 
creamy batter results. Fry in a pan greased 
with a piece of fat rubbed over it. At first 
you will find it best to try small cakes and 
turn them with a knife, but after you have 
practised a while you will no doubt be able 
to make cakes the full size of the pan and 
to turn them by a dexterous twist of the pan. 
When you can toss the cake some distance 
in the air and catch it, the other side up on the 
pan as it falls, you can consider yourself a 



38 MAKING CAMP 

true camp cook. Another strictly camp dish 
is known as "dope," and is made as follows: 
Place a pound or so of salt pork (cut into 
dice-shaped pieces) in the frying pan with a 
little water and boil for one minute. Pour 
off water and fry the pork until nearly brown. 
Remove the pieces and rub into the hot fat 
three or four spoonfuls of flour and a little 
pepper and cook the flour without allowing 
it to brown. When perfectly smooth add a 
quart of water, in which twelve dessertspoon- 
fuls of evaporated milk have been dissolved; 
slowly bring this to a boil, stirring constantly; 
add the pork scraps and serve. This is a 
very good way to serve pork. It is used a 
great deal as a sauce or gravy, is a good 
substitute for butter, and is delicious on grid- 
dle cakes in place of syrup. I think that with 
the foregoing hints, combined with the help 
you can get from your mothers, sisters or 
cooks, that you need not fear to attiempt or- 
dinary camp cooking. 



CHAPTER III 

WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 

It is a serious matter to get lost in the 
woods. Even when near home or settlements 
a person may become lost and wander for 
hours in a comparatively small area of v^ood- 
land. In deep or strange woods it is really 
unsafe for an unskilled or inexperienced per- 
son to travel far, unless some marks or signs 
are made so that you can retrace your steps. 
Experienced and skilful woodsmen seldom 
become lost; but even such people often 
v^ander a considerable distance from the most 
direct path, and for this reason nearly all 
forest trails are marked by places cut on 
trees and knows as *' blazes.'' 

Trails or routes thus marked are knov^n as 
*' blazed trails," and although a novice may 
be unable to '' read " the signs, yet a blazed 
trail is always easy to follow and we speak 
of people " leaving a blazed trail behind 
them," when we mean to impress the fact 
that their footsteps are easy to follow and we 
speak of explorers, pioneers or others '' blaz- 
ing a way " for others for the same reason. 



40 WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 

Blazed Trails 

One of the first things for boy campers to 
learn is to follow a blazed trail; by that I do 
not mean merely to follow from one mark to 
another, but to learn the meaning of the 
various signs or " blazes," for each different 
form or position of one of these marks means 
a different thing and after you once learn 
them thoroughly you can follow a trail as 
easily as though signboards were nailed to 
the trees. Of course, different men have dif- 
ferent systems of blazing a trail, but, like 
the " pigeon Indian '' languages of Canada, 
the blazed trail in any form is easily under- 
stood if the key is once known, for all are 
read in the same way, no matter whether the 
marks are large or small, high or low. Now 
and then we may run across a blaze that con- 
veys no meaning to us, but this is of no 
importance, as it is doubtless a private mark 
of the maker to show some particular spot or 
to refresh his memory the next time he passes 
that way. 

All blazes may be divided into three classes: 
The first consisting of a single spot, the sec- 
ond of two spots side by side, and the third 
consisting of three spots one above another. 
The first of these is used in denoting a trail. 



WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 41 

the second turns or directions, the third for 
warning of danger, traps, or other matters 
requiring caution. A glance at Figs, i, 2, 
3, 4 will illustrate this far better than a 
description. Thus the single spot in Fig. i 
marks a trail, and the tramper should pro- 
ceed straight ahead from one such mark- to 
another. When you meet the mark shown in 
Fig. 2, turn to the right and look for another 
single spot. If you see a mark like Fig. 3, 
turn to the left. Fig. 4 would serve to show 
you that you must proceed with caution; per- 
haps it may be a bad windfall, a hidden mud 
hole, a steep ravine, or in fact anything re- 
quiring care before proceeding. As long as 
you find the three perpendicular marks use 
every care until the single blazes reappear on 
the trees. Figs. 5, 6, 7 show how the three 
warning marks are used in combination with 
single blazes for special purposes. Thus Fig. 
5 means a trap is set to the right and you 
should therefore pass to the left. Fig. 6 
shows a trap to left, so pass to the right. 
Fig. 7 denotes the site of a survey line, so do 
not mar or cut trees bearing it. Oftentimes 
when going into camp with some of the party 
absent a mark is made to show the position of 
the camp. This is usually a long perpen- 
dicular mark, with another below and to 



42 



WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 






Fio.3 



Fio.4 







one side, as shown in Figs. 8 and 9. The 
position of the lower mark denotes whether 
the camp is to right or left. Figs. 10 and 11 
show special or private marks and are of no 
importance, save to the makers or those to 



WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 43 

whom directions as to their significance have 
been given. 

As the blazed spots on the trees become 
weathered and healed in time the trail be- 
comes difficult to follow and hence it is cus- 
tomary for every traveller over such a trail to 
chop the blazed spots anew so that in time 
practically every tree along the line of march 
is marked. 

When going into a strange forest or when 
some of the party are straggling behind you 
should always blaze a trail as I have de- 
scribed. It is well to practise this near home 
before going on a trip and a fine game of 
hare and hounds may be played by two boys, 
starting out across country and blazing a 
trail and then having others endeavour to 
find them by following the marks. This is a 
far more useful game than real Hare and 
Hounds, especially if you ever expect to 
do much tramping, hunting or trapping in the 
woods. 

It is a good plan to get into the habit of 
always blazing a trail in the woods, and if 
you wish your party to be sure of your trail 
you can make the single- or " trail-mark " of 
a certain peculiar shape. It is very easy to 
blaze a trail and it takes practically no time, 
as you walk along, for all you have to do 



44 WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 

is to clip off a piece of bark with ax or 
machete every few rods. Make the marks for 
the trail about as high from the ground as 
your eyes, as in that position they are much 
more readily seen and followed. 

Other Trail Marks 

In localities where there are no trees, or 
trees are scarce, the trails are marked by the 
same system, but in a very different manner, 
this is done by means of twigs, bunches of 
grass or even stones. One stone on another 
marks the trail, the same with a third stone 
to right or left shows which way to turn, 
while three stones call especial attention, or 
serve as a warning. A single twig bent or 
broken shows a trail, this, with a twig with 
base pointing to right means to right, if 
pointed to left turn to left, while the impor- 
tant, or warning, sign is shown by placing a 
detached twig or branch in the fork of 
another. 

Bunches of grass, or reeds, if tied or twisted 
together in a single knot mark a trail, if the 
wisp at top is turned to right or left it shows 
direction to follow, while the warning sign is 
shown by three bunches of grass. This use 
of three marks to signify danger, or to attract 



WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 



45 



Special attention, is universal and is very 
easy to remember. 

You will see by this, and by looking at 





Figs. 12 to 23, that these marks or signs are 
as easy to read, — after you learn the real 
blaze signs, — as are the latter. It is a good 
plan to always carry a card or a slip of paper 



46 WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 

showing these various signals when in the 
woods. If you should get lost or become 
confused you may be so nervous or excited 
that you do not feel sure of your memory of 
the signs, and if you have them to refer to, 
there is no chance of making a mistake. Be 
sure to practise making and reading all the 
various trail-marks until you know them by 
heart. You will find it a lot of fun and it will 
always be useful in the woods. Of course 
a compass is a great help when in the woods 
and you should always have one along; but 
it is mainly of help when you are lost, as it 
aids you in proceeding in a straight line and 
prevents you from walking in a circle; but 
unless you know in which direction your des- 
tination lies you will have hard work to find 
it by compass alone. Bearings of prominent 
objects or landmarks seen from camp will 
help you, and the young woodsman or camper 
should learn to note the bearings of all hills, 
rivers, mountains, etc., by instinct and should 
train himself to retain a memory of direction 
in his mind at all times. 

Moss on the trees is sometimes a good 
indication of the points of the compass; but 
as this varies a great deal in different places 
and as it often takes an expert to determine 
on which side of a tree the moss is the thick- 



WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 47 

est, I think it is more confusing than useful 
as a general rule. 

Sometimes a watch may be made to serve 
more or less accurately for a compass. If 
the watch is held so that the shadow of the 
hour hand casts its shadow directly beneath 
it, half-way between that point and the figure 
twelve will be south. This, of course, is only 
approximate, for the sun's direction varies 
with the season and latitude, but it will give 
you a more or less accurate idea of the points 
of the compass and will keep you from wan- 
dering about in a circle, as people invariably 
will when lost. If you blaze a trail, how- 
ever, this will never occur, for by sighting 
back to the last two blazes you can always 
be sure of taking a fairly straight line. 

Signals and Signalling 

While trail-signs, blazes, etc., will serve to 
guide you in following an old trail, retracing 
your path through the woods or blazing a 
new trail for others to follow, there are 
times when some other form of communica- 
tion must be used. Sometimes one or more 
of the party may be separated from his or 
their companions, or may become lost, and 
at such times a method of communicating 



48 WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 

their whereabouts or location to their friends 
is very useful. The most careful person may 
meet with an accident and become helpless, 
far from home or camp, and at such a time 
a knowledge of signalling will prove of im- 
mense value. Even when no accident occurs, 
signal codes or signalling methods will often 
prove of great aid and value. A boy or a 
party may be sent to find wood, water, game 
or a camp-site and by the aid of simple signals 
the news of his discoveries may be com- 
municated to his companions many miles 
away, and save a long, hard, weary tramp 
and a great deal of time. 

Nearly all savage tribes have an intricate 
and elaborate system of signalling to one 
another and news is flashed from tribe to 
tribe over wide distances almost as rapidly 
as by telegraph. During the Boer war the 
natives often learned the result of a battle 
miles away, long before the whites knew 
through telegraphic advices. A great deal of 
information may be readily conveyed by very 
simple signals and it is best to begin on sim- 
ple things and work up to more elaborate 
methods and codes. 

Distance signals may be made by fire, 
smoke, flashes of light, flags, hats or other 
objects easily seen. Fires are used at night 



WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 49 

while smoke or flashed signals are the most 
commonly and easily used during the day. 
Signals flashed by a mirror can be seen for 
immense distances and are the basis of the 
heliograph signals used in the army. Al- 
though a regular heliograph is easily made, 
a small pocket mirror is far more useful and 
easy to carry for ordinary purposes. The 
simplest signals for ordinary purposes, — 
whether made by smoke, fires or mirror 
flashes,— are similar to those already de- 
scribed for trail-signs. One smoke, fire or 
flash means location. Thus, if a member of 
a party is absent and the location of a camp 
is to be shown, a single column of smoke, a 
single bright fire or a single flash of a mirror 
will denote the position. Two smokes, two 
fires or two flashes, repeated at intervals, will 
mean trouble and that help is required. Three 
smokes, three fires or three flashes convey 
good news, or that a hunt or search is suc- 
cessful and four signal smokes, fires or flashes 
call all members of the party to a meeting 
spot or camp (Figs. 24, 25, 26). These same 
signals may be given by shots from a gun or 
pistol and any additional ones may be ar- 
ranged and decided upon among the campers 
as special signals. 

While these simple signals will answer very 



50 WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 

well for ordinary purposes, yet one often 
wishes to convey some long, or unusual, 
message to friends or fellow woodsmen, and 
to do this you must learn one of the various 
signal-codes in common use. There are a 
number of these codes but the most widely 
used, and as simple as any, is the Morse Code 
used by telegraphers. Every boy would do 
well to learn this code or " alphabet " thor- 
oughly, for it is a most useful thing to know 
even if you never go camping or care noth- 
ing for out-of-doors life. In addition to its 
usefulness any boy can obtain a great deal 
of amusement from it and by signalling mes- 
sages in Morse two or more boys can readily 
talk for long distances across country — a real 
wireless system without instruments. 

Many devices and keys have been devised 
to make the Morse code easy to learn and 
memorise, but to my mind most of these are 
more difficult to remember than the code it- 
self. Ordinary Morse is a hard code to use 
in signalling with fire, smoke, etc., as there 
are many letters of spaced dots. For this 
reason it is better to use the Continental 
Morse or Continental Code, which has no 
spaced dots. As this is the code used to 
large extent in wireless it is a good code to 
know and is as follows: 



WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 51 

A.— B— . .. C— .— . D— . . E. F..— . 

G . H.... I.. J. K— .— L.— . . 

M X—. O P. . Q .— 

R._. s... T— U..— V...— W. 

X— . .— Y— . Z .. 

By using this code any message may be 
spelled out, but in addition certain combina- 
tions have been adopted to signify certain 
things or sentences commonly used, thus, — 
D D means a call or " Signalling." W W 
means " Answering." F F means " Spell- 
ing." I M I signifies " Repeat." AAA 
means " Full stop." G means " Go on." 
M G, "Wait." R T, "Right." F I, 
*' Xumeral," etc., etc. 

Boys accustomed to using telegraph instru- 
ments will find it very easy to use the code in 
signalling, but to the beginner it will be at 
first rather hard to so time the flashes, 
smokes or fires, as to make an intelligible 
message, for dots, dashes and spaces will no 
doubt be hopelessly muddled at first. A dot 
consists of a flash, fire, or smoke of one sec- 
ond's duration; a dash should be two seconds 
long and a space should be four seconds. 
Between words a longer period of say six 
or eight seconds should be allowed until 
thoroughly familiar with the code and its 
use. To use the code with a fire, a blanket, 



52 



WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 



coat, or any other object should be held in 
front of the flames and by removing this for 
one second a dot is given, then screen the 
fire for four seconds and remove for two sec- 
onds for a dash. When using smoke-signals 
a good fire should be made and then covered 
with damp wood, leaves or turf, until heavy 




rULL STOP 



smoke rises. A wet blanket, carpet, canvas or 
similar object thrown over this will stop the 
smoke, and if quickly removed and replaced 
puffs of smoke of varying sizes will be sent 
up. These should be sufficiently distinct in 
size and duration to admit of no mistake in 
reading. A straight stick or flag and a cap 
or hat may be used to transmit Morse; and 
for use aboard boats, or where the signaller 
is plainly seen, this system proves most use- 
ful. In using this method the stick, shingle, 
flag or piece of cloth, should be held in one 



WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 53 

hand and the hat, or cap, in the other. The flag 
or board means a dash and the cap a dot (Fig. 
2y), while lowering both arms means a space 
and the space between words is signified by 
raising both arms over the head. Two flags of 
distinct colours may also be used to advan- 
tage and from a tree-top, flag pole or mast- 
head, signals may be sent for a long distance. 
This method has one great advantage inas- 
much as the boys using it may decide on any 
colour they wish for dot and any other colour 
for a dash and thus the signals, while easily 
understood by those in the secret, are abso- 
lutely meaningless to others. 

Almost as important as a knowledge of 
signalling is the ability to make either a 
bright, or a smoking, fire to use for signals 
and of far greater importance than either is 
the ability to kindle a fire quickly and surely 
under any and all circumstances. 



CHAPTER IV 

EMERGENCY HINTS 
Making Fire Without Matches 

There is really no excuse for anyone being- 
caught in the woods without matches, but ac- 
cidents will happen and matches may be lost 
or may be wet or damp, and the most careful 
person may at times forget, or use up, his 
supply of these useful articles. Even without 
matches there is no reason for going without 
fire, and every camper should be provided 
with the means and knowledge for producing 
fire without the civilised, and most conveni- 
ent, match. 

The next best thing to matches is a flint 
and steel with tinder. Flints and steel with 
tinder fuse may now be bought from any 
dealer in camping or sporting goods and such 
an outfit should be in possession of every 
boy who camps, traps, hunts or tramps. 
While these are the best and easiest to use, 
any piece of fiint, hornstone or quartz, and 
any piece of steel can be made to answer. 
The great secret in making a fire with flint 

54 



EMERGENCY HINTS 55 

and steel is to have the right sort of tinder 
or " punk." Dry cedar bark, dry and rotten 
pine, or spruce shavings; dried lichens, or 
moss; dry, resinous pine or balsam, sawdust 
and various other common materials are all 
good, but the best of all are dried puff-balls 
and other fungus growths and cotton wicking 
soaked in saltpetre and dried. The large, fiat, 
white fungus-growths found on decaying 
trees are splendid tinder when thoroughly 
dry and a supply of these should be on hand. 

To strike fire with fiint and steel, hold a 
piece of punk against the lower side of the 
fiint, or bit of stone, and strike sharply down- 
ward across the edge of the stone with the 
steel (Fig. i). A shower of bright sparks will 
fiy off, and after one or two trials one or more 
of the sparks will probably rest on the punk 
and will begin to smoulder. As soon as this 
occurs blow it into a brisk glow and by plac- 
ing fine shavings, sawdust, cedar bark, and 
similar tinder upon the glowing spot and 
blowing it, a fiame will soon spring up. 

Infiammable material should then be added 
a little at a time until the fire is going 
briskly. All this sounds easy, in fact it is 
easy enough once you get the knack of it, and 
hours of practice will not be misspent in 
learning this useful accomplishment, which is 



56 EMERGENCY HINTS 

nowadays known to comparatively few, al- 
though a few generations ago it was used by 
everyone in civilised lands. 

Sometimes even the flint and steel will be 
wanting and a fire may be required. At such 
times one should know how to build a fire by 
rubbing two sticks together, and while this 
method is slow and may at times fail en- 
tirely, yet it is not by any means as hard as 
many writers would have us believe. The 
rapidity and ease with which fire may be 
made by this method depends almost entirely 
upon having just the right sort of material 
in the first place. Many tribes of savages 
make fire in this way and there are innumer- 
able variations in the materials, implements 
and methods used. The easiest, surest and 
simplest method is that known as the bow 
and drill. To make a fire in this way you 
must have the following implements and ma- 
terials, — 

A Bow — consisting of a stiff, bent stick 
with a leather string; the bow should be 
about 27 inches long and from >^ to J4 of 
an inch in thickness (Fig. 2). 

A Drill — an eight-sided stick about 12 to 
18 inches long and H of an inch thick, pointed 
at each end (Fig. 3). 

A Fire Block — a piece of flat very dry wood 



EMERGENCY HINTS 57 

about H of an inch thick, of almost any width 
and length, with notches cut in one edge 

(Fig. 4). 

A Drill Socket — a small stone, knot or bit 
of hardwood with a small socket, or hole, in 
one side (Fig. 5). 

Tinder — shredded dry cedar bark or similar 
tinder. 

The material of which the above tools are 
made is of great importance. The bow may 
be of almost any strong, light wood, such as 
balsam fir, hemlock or cedar. The drill 
should be of old dry but not punky or rotten 
fir, or Cottonwood, basswood, cedar, larch, 
sagebrush or pine. The best materials are 
fir or Cottonwood roots. 

The fire block should be dry fir, pine or 
hemlock. 

To use these implements place a piece of 
pine punk on the ground, set the fire block 
over this and hold it in place with one foot. 
Take a turn of the bow-string around the drill 
(Fig. 6); place one end of the drill in a notch 
in the fire block and rest the drill socket (held 
in left hand) on the other end of drill, thus 
holding the drill perpendicularly between the 
left hand and socket and the fire block held 
in place by your foot. Hold the bow in your 
right hand and draw it back and forth with 



58 EMERGENCY HINTS 

even, steady, long strokes, thus whirling the 
drill in its socket (Fig. 7). In a few moments 
you will see a brownish powder of wood run 
out of the fire block on to the punk below. As 
the notch in the block increases in size it will 
darken and a light smoke will arise. When 
this occurs increase the pressure on the drill 
with the socket and work the bow faster with 
the right hand. The smoke should now in- 
crease rapidly and the sawdust-like powder 
will begin to fill up the notch in the fire 
block. Presently the powder itself will begin 
to smoke and turn black and the bow should 
now be discarded and the heap of powder 
gently fanned, or blown, until it smokes 
freely. Then remove the fire block and insert 
bits of prepared cedar bark or other tinder 
in the pile of smoking powder. Place an- 
other piece of dry pine-punk over this and 
grasping both pieces of punk, — with powder 
and tinder between, — wave the whole back 
and forth and blow upon it until it flames. 

I do not suppose that you will accomplish 
this on the first trial, but with a little practice 
you will find it a very easy and interesting 
operation and you will soon be the envy of 
many other boys who have never learned the 
trick. 

In kindling a fire, from either matches, 



EMERGENCY HINTS 



59 



bow and drill, flint and steel or by any other 
method, it will prove of value to have some 
dry birch bark, cedar bark and resinous pine, 





Fig. 7 



^Bof^ 



FiQ. 2 




Fig. 3 



fii,h»*i it(/99 



Fig. 5 



or fir twigs on hand in a little pocket or bag. 
Even under the best conditions it is not al- 
ways easy to find dry materials for building 



60 EMERGENCY HINTS 

a fire when you want it and in wet weather 
you will find that even a small supply of dry 
material on hand will prove of the greatest 
help and benefit in starting your fires in the 
woods. Birch bark will burn, even when wet, 
and green and dry wood may usually be found 
in hollow logs, stumps, or under dead pine 
bark; but such things are often at some dis- 
tance from camp and hard to find, and the 
boy who is always well prepared for emer- 
gencies will succeed best in the long run, — 
especially in the woods. 

How to Render First Aid to the Injured 

No matter how careful or cautious you 
may be, or what provisions you may make 
to avoid accidents, you are at all times liable 
to meet with some injury. Such things are 
not confined to the boy in the woods, on the 
water or camping out, for even on city streets, 
in vehicles or in your own home, accidents are 
liable to occur. Oftentimes a wound, sprain, 
dislocation or similar injury, if taken in time 
and properly attended to, will be of little 
moment, whereas if neglected or improperly 
treated it may prove dangerous or even fatal. 

Even if you do not meet with any casualty 
yourself you are always liable to find some- 



EMERGENCY HINTS 61 

one who is injured, sick or disabled, and a 
knowledge of how to properly bandage, stop 
the flow of blood, revive drowning people or 
render first aid in any form, is of the utmost 
value and importance. Although this knowl- 
edge may come in handy at any time and in 
any place, yet it is of particular value to the 
outdoor boy. 

How to Make and Use Bandages 

Sprains, breaks, cuts and dislocations are 
of frequent occurrence and fortunately this 
class of injuries are the easiest to treat and 
to care for. 

Every boy or party of boys who tramp or 
camp should be provided with certain simple 
remedies and appliances and among the most 
important of these are bandages. 

Bandages are merely pieces of cloth of 
various lengths, widths and shapes used to 
bind up and retain dressings on wounds, to 
hold splints in place on broken or dislocated 
bones, to stop the flow of blood or to render 
immovable certain parts of the body. Band- 
ages are made of various materials, such as 
linen, muslin, flannel, gauze and cotton. Band- 
ages treated with antiseptic solutions may be 
purchased at any drug store and are most 



62 EMERGENCY HINTS 

excellent, but any piece of clean cloth will 
answer in a pinch in case of emergency. 

The ideal bandage for first-aid use is that 
known as the Esmarch triangular bandage. 
It is easier to use by the amateur than either 
the plain, four-tailed or roller bandage. A 
triangular bandage may be easily formed by 
cutting any piece of cloth forty inches square 
into two triangular halves and may be made 
from linen, cotton or gauze, but is best when 
made from good, strong cotton cloth. 

The regulation triangular bandages fur- 
nished to the army have printed directions 
upon them showing their use with illustra- 
tions, which are not destroyed by washing 
and ironing. 

The longest edge of the bandage is called 
the " lower border " and the other two 
edges the " side borders." The apex of the 
triangle is the '' point " and the other two 
corners are called ''ends" (Fig. 8). 

The bandage may be used whole, as in the 
case of head injuries or when a sling is re- 
C[uired, or it may be folded into various widths 
and shapes to suit the needs of the part in- 
jured. 

When thus folded the bandage is of great 
use in holding splints or dressings in posi- 
tion, for slings or to serve as tourniquets for 



EMERGENCY HINTS 



63 



B>'»t- 



EmoL 




Enet. 



£-oi^vr Bord.^r 



Fia.9 





64 EMERGENCY HINTS 

Stopping the flow of blood (Fig. 9). To 
fasten any bandage, use a strong safety pin, 
or tie the ends with a square- or reef-knot. 
Never use a " granny " knot, as it is liable to 
slip or become unfastened. The bandage 
should be used as a sling for injuries to arm, 
hand or shoulder by folding the triangle as 
shown in Fig. 9, making the folds the 
proper width to suit each particular case. 

How to Make a Sling 

The bandage thus folded is used by placing 
one end over the shoulder on the injured side 
and letting the other end hang down in front. 
The injured arm should then be bent at a 
right angle in front of the bandage with the 
thumb upward; then draw the loose end up 
in front of the arm and over the opposite 
shoulder, where it should be tied to the other 
end back of the neck (Fig. 10). 

A broad sling is useful in many cases and 
is used by placing the point below and be- 
yond the elbow of the damaged arm, and the 
upper end across the opposite shoulder, letting 
the point hang. Then bend the forearm across 
the breast with palm of hand inward and 
thumb up and bring the lower end of bandage 
up across the forearm, pass it over the shoul- 



EMERGENCY HINTS 65 

der on injured side and fasten the ends to- 
gether firmly behind neck. Draw the point 
of bandage forward over the elbow and pin 
it snugly in place. This is an almost per- 
fect dressing for any injury to the upper arm, 
such as a broken collar bone, dislocated 
shoulder, dislocated elbow, broken upper arm 
bones or sprained wrist (Fig. ii). 

Injuries to the Head 

In case of extensive injuries to the head 
the bandage should be used as a whole and 
not folded. This is the case in scalp wounds, 
especially those that bleed freely, fractured 
skull, severe contusions, etc. In using the 
bandage for these purposes a hem should be 
formed along the lower border about two 
inches wide by folding the edge over once 
or twice. Place the lower edge of bandage, 
with middle of hem over centre of forehead 
with lower edge of hem on a line with eye- 
brows (this is important, as otherwise it will 
slip off). The point of bandage will then 
hang over the centre of the back of the neck. 
Both ends should then be gathered backwards 
around head just above ears, being sure to 
have the point of bandage underneath the 
two ends. Cross the ends and bring them 



ee EMERGENCY HINTS 

around to the front of head again and tie 
firmly over forehead. Pull the point of the 
bandage down so that the whole fits the head 
snugly and turn it up over the two ends and 
pin in place (Fig. 12). 

For small scalp wounds or injuries to ears 
or eyes, it is not necessary to use the band- 
age as a whole and in such cases it may be 
folded up as shown in Fig. 9, and used as 
shown in Fig. 13. For shoulder wounds the 
triangular bandage should be employed as 
illustrated in Fig. 14. Place the lower border 
downward across the middle of arm, the point 
on top of shoulder or beside the neck. The 
two ends should next be brought around the 
arm, crossed on the inside and tied on the 
outside. The forearm on the same side 
should then be bent and placed in a sling as 
already described. Next draw the point of 
the large bandage under and around the sling 
where it passes around the neck, and pin it 
in position. 

Injuries to Hands 

For wounds or injuries to the hand the 
bandage may be used in two ways, either 
when the whole hand is to be covered or 
where only a small part requires treatment. 



EMERGENCY HINTS 



67 



For a whole hand bandage, spread out the 
triangle, place the hand with palm down upon 
it, with the fingers pointing to the point of 
bandage and wrist in centre of lower border. 
Now turn the point over and back and down 




over wrist and bring the ends around the 
wrist, thus binding down the point. Cross 
the ends and bring them back again and tie 
over point. Now draw point up so that the 
bandage fits tightly; turn over and pin in 
place (Fig. 15). 

Where it is not necessary to cover the fin- 
gers, as in case of wounds to palm or back 



6s EMERGENCY HINTS 

of hand, the bandage should be folded to a 
proper width, place the centre over injured 
spot with a compress on wound if possible, 
bring the ends around the hand and cross 
them obliquely, then bring them in front, 
bring them back around wrist and tie firmly. 

Injuries to Hip 

For injuries to the hip two triangular 
bandages should be used, and these are ap- 
plied very much in the same manner as al- 
ready described for injuries to the shoulders. 
First fold a narrow bandage and tie around 
the waist like a belt, with the knot opposite 
the injured side. Then place a triangular 
bandage across outside of injured hip with 
lower border on middle of thigh, and point 
upwards. Pass the ends around thigh, cross 
them and tie on outside. Pass the point 
under belt, bring it over and pin (Fig. i6). 

For wounds or injuries to the leg below 
hip and above the foot the bandage is applied 
folded as for a narrow sling, passed around 
leg several times and tied opposite to the 
injury so that the knot will not press on the 
wound. 

For injuries to the foot place the foot on 
the triangle with toes toward the point. 



EMERGENCY HINTS 69 

Carry the point up over instep, take both ends 
forward around ankle to front and over point, 
cross them again behind, catching lower bor- 
der of bandage, bring the ends forward and 
tie in front of ankle. Then bring the point 
down over knot and pin as usual (Fig. 17). 

Making Tourniquets 

Tourniquets are used to stop bleeding and 
should always be applied above the wound 
and at some spot where the arteries are near 
the surface. Under the knee, under the arm- 
pit, above the elbow, on groin or on side of 
neck are the usual spots. For many cuts a 
mere folded rag or cloth placed around the 
leg or arm and twisted tight by means of a 
stick or rod, will serve every purpose, but in 
severe cases, as in deep cuts or gunshot 
wounds, a pebble, lump of clay, a bit of 
wood, a ball of stiff paper, a nut or even a 
knot in a cloth should be placed under the 
tourniquet in order to press upon the arteries 
and stop the bleeding (Fig. 25). 

Injuries to Arms and Hand 

If the cut is on the arm or hand, holding 
the injured member above the head will help 
stop the flow of blood, and in case of a cut 



70 EMERGENCY HINTS 

or wound in the leg the injured limb should 
always be elevated as high as possible. 

Carrying an Injured Comrade 

An important matter in the case of many 
injuries is that of helping or carrying the in- 
jured person to a spot where proper treatment 
or attention may be administered. If two or 
more people are present a stretcher of some 
sort should be used, but quite often one may 
be alone with the injured, and in such cases 
he should know how to carry the sufferer 
without further injury and with as little 
pain and discomfort as possible. If the in- 
jured person is not unconscious and can ren- 
der some help himself he should place his 
arm over the other's shoulder so that the arm- 
pit of the injured person rests on the shoulder 
of his bearer, with the arm passing around 
the latter's neck and over the other shoulder. 
The bearer then grasps the wrist of the arm 
over his shoulder with the hand of that side 
and with the other arm supports the patient's 
waist (Fig. i8). 

Another good way of carrying a conscious 
patient is '' Pick-a-Back." This is a particu- 
larly good method for carrying children or 
people light in weight. 



EMERGENCY HINTS 71 

' Unconscious people may be carried across 
the back. This is a particularly easy way to 
carry people who are insensible from smoke 
or gas, as it leaves the bearer free to use one 
hand in groping his way about. It is also an 
excellent method when obliged to carry a 
person up or down ladders or stairs. 

When the arm or leg is broken this method, 
however, cannot be used. There are several 
different methods of this back carrying, but 
that most commonly used and the easiest to 
accomplish is known as the '' Fireman's Lift." 

Several successive operations are required 
in order to get the injured person on your 
back and these are best understood by re- 
ferring to the Figs. 19, 20, 21, 22, 2^. 

First — Kneel on both knees at head of the 
injured person, facing the patient and turn 
him .over, face down, straighten arms at 
sides (Fig. 19). 

Second — Pass hands under body, grasp pa- 
tient under armpits, raise the body as high 
as possible while kneeling and let it rest on 
your knees (Fig. 20). 

Third — Pass both arms around waist of pa- 
tient and lift him to an upright position with 
his body inclined towards your right shoul- 
der (Fig. 21). 

Fourth — Grasp the patient's right hand 



72 



EMERGENCY HINTS 



right 



arm 



with your left; throwing his 
around your neck. Now stoop and place your 
head beneath his body, at the same time pass 
your right arm between or around his legs, 



Fig. 20 




Fig. 21 



The Fireman's Lift 



Fig. 23 



bringing his weight on the centre of your 
back (Fig. 22). 

Fifth — Grasp the patient's right hand or 
wrist, with your right hand, balance his body 
carefully on your shoulders and rise to an 
upright position (Fig. 23). 

When litters or stretchers are not available 
and yet there are two or more persons pres- 
ent, the injured may be readily carried either 
by the well-known '' four-handed chair " or 
by the " Fore and Aft Carry." The former 



EMERGENCY HINTS 73 

method is so well known to every boy that 
it is not necessary to explain it. The latter, 
or Fore and Aft, is not so well known. 

To do this the bearers should stand at the 
patient's head and feet. The one at the head 
should pass his arms beneath the head and 
under armpits and interlock the fingers in 
front of chest. The bearer at feet should 
pass one hand around each knee and thus 
carry a leg under each arm (Fig. 24). 

Miscellaneous Hints 

Never carry a patient face down by arms 
and legs. 

In using a litter, or stretcher, care should 
be used in making it strong enough to safely 
bear the weight and it should always be tested 
before placing a patient upon it. A door, 
shutter or blind may be used for a stretcher 
if nothing else is handy. A litter may also 
be improvised by use of an overcoat. Turn 
the sleeves inside out; button coat over sleeves 
and pass pole through each sleeve. In the 
woods, litters may be readily fashioned by 
using branches of trees fastened together by 
vines, roots, bark or even twisted handker- 
chiefs and then covered with branches, leaves, 
grass or ferns. Never carry an injured per- 



74 EMERGENCY HINTS 

son on a loose blanket, clothing, curtain or 
similar object, as a corner may slip or the 
material tear and drpp the patient. 

When a litter is carried by two persons 
they should be careful not to keep step but 
the one in front should start with right foot 
and the one behind with the left foot. If the 
two bearers are of unequal height the taller 
should be at the head of the patient. Always 
carry patient feet first except in going up 
stairs or up a steep hill, when the he^d should 
be in front. In case of broken or injured 
thigh or leg, however, the feet should go 
first when ascending and last in descending. 

Never carry a stretcher with a patient on 
the shoulders, but always carry it by the 
hands, or hung on straps across the shoulders. 

All these first aid bandagings, carryings 
and similar treatments should be practised 
from time to time until expert, for you never 
know when a thorough knowledge of such 
matters may save life or limb. Never lose 
your head or get frightened at sight of broken 
bones or bleeding wounds. Use every bit of 
skill and knowledge you possess in doing 
what you can to relieve the injury and then 
obtain medical treatment just as soon as 
possible. 

Aside from bandaging for various injuries 



EMERGENCY HINTS 75 

and flow of blood, there are numerous acci- 
dents met with which require very different 
treatment. Some of these are: 

Shocks of various sorts. In shocks the 
patient lies pale, faint and sometimes in- 
sensible. Place the patient flat on back with 
head and shoulders slightly raised. Loosen 
clothing about neck. Give a little brandy and 
water, whisky and water, or aromatic spirits 
of ammonia and water every two minutes. 
External warmth should be applied to limbs 
and pit of stomach either by hot applications, 
or rubbing briskly. Wrap patient in warm 
blankets. As soon as patient comes to, 
strong, hot soup or similar stimulating nour- 
ishment may be given. 

Fractured bones should be splintered by 
pieces of light wood fastened in place with a 
bandage or handkerchiefs. 

Severe bruises should be treated by hot 
water applications. After inflammation has 
subsided use stimulating applications such as 
vinegar and water, alcohol, etc. 

Sprains — Elevate limb, keep joint quiet; 
apply lukewarm lotions or compresses. When 
inflammation ceases apply liniments; spray 
parts with cold water, alternating with warm 
water, or apply hot and cold compresses 
alternately and bandage. 



76 EMERGENCY HINTS 

Burns and scalds should be kept from 
the air as much as possible and to accom- 
plish this cover the burn with flour, oil and 
flour, lard and flour, limewater and oil, 
cooking soda and oil or grease and similar 
compounds and the blisters should not be 
broken. 

Sunstroke — Take patient into shade at 
once; place in recumbent position with head 
and shoulders elevated; loosen clothes about 
neck and body; apply ice, or cold, wet cloths 
on head and nape of neck, changing fre- 
quently. Douche head, spine and chest from 
a height of two or three feet. Fan patient 
briskly and treat limbs and sides with mus- 
tard, or administer stimulants. 

Poison — The first step in all poison cases 
is to administer an antidote and then cause 
vomiting. The best and handiest emetic is a 
tablespoonful of mustard in a cup of water 
or a spoonful or two of common salt in water. 
When vomiting has already taken place give 
draughts of warm water, soap and water or 
oil to keep up the effect until stomach is 
thoroughly empty. 

The following are antidotes for most of the 
common poisons: 

Strong Acids — Give common chalk, oil, 
soapsuds, soda or any common alkali. 



EMERGENCY HINTS 77 

For Arsenic — Magnesia, milk, raw eggs, 
powdered charcoal, oil and limewater. 

For Prussic Acid — Cold affusion, brandy 
and ammonia or stimulants. 

For Opium, Morphine, etc. — Keep patient 
moving, give strong coffee, slap with hands 
and switches, sting with nettles, rub with 
mustard, etc. 

Asphyxia — In cases of patients overcome 
by gas, charcoal fumes, etc., the face becomes 
livid and the victim should at once be placed 
in clear air with head raised. The clothing 
should be removed and the body douched 
with cold water. Ammonia should be ap- 
plied to nose and the face and body should be 
sponged with vinegar and water and briskly 
rubbed. In severe cases artificial respiration, 
as described for drowning, should be re- 
sorted to. 

Frostbite and Freezing — Use friction on 
parts affected, commencing with snow or 
similar cold substances and later place in cold 
water until frost is removed. As soon as 
sensation returns, administer brandy and 
water in small quantities. If the patient is 
apparently dead, or insensible, the body 
should be stripped and then covered with 
snow or ice and placed in cold water. When 
the body is thawed, dry it, place in a dry, 



78 EMERGENCY HINTS 

cold bed and rub hard under cover. Continue 
this for hours. If life appears give small in- 
jections of camphor and water, put a drop or 
two of spirits on tongue; then rub body with 
spirits and water and finally with clear spirits. 
Then administer hot tea, coffee or brandy 
and water. 

Drowning — First, unless in danger of freez- 
ing, do not try to remove the apparently 
drowned, but instantly expose the face to a 
current of air, wipe the mouth and nose dry, 
remove clothing across chest and waist and 
give two or three quick smarting slaps on 
stomach and chest with open hand. If pa- 
tient does not revive, proceed as follows: 

Draw off water from stomach and lungs. 
If jaws are clenched, separate them and keep 
mouth open by a bit of wood or cork between 
teeth. Turn patient on face, a large bundle 
of clothing, a log, barrel, or a person's knee 
being placed beneath the stomach, and press 
heavily upon the back for half a minute, or 
as long as fluids flow from mouth. 

Next, produce artificial breathing by clear- 
ing mouth and throat of mucus with a hand- 
kerchief wrapped around finger. Turn patient 
on back with roll of clothing or some round 
object under back so as to raise stomach 
above rest of body. If another person is 



EMERGENCY HINTS 79 

present have him hold the tip of tongue out of 
one corner of the mouth, as this prevents 
the tongue from falling back and closing the 
windpipe, and with the other hand grasp both 
wrists and keep the patient's arms stretched 
back above the head. Kneel astride, or be- 
side, the patient with balls of thumbs resting 
on either side of pit of stomach, let fingers 
fall into grooves between short ribs so as to 
grasp waist. Now use your knees as a pivot 
and throw your weight forward on your 
hands, at the same time squeezing the waist 
between them as if you wished to force the 
contents of chest up through the mouth. 
Deepen the pressure while you count slowly 
one, two, three, and then suddenly let go 
with a final push which springs you back 
to your first kneeling position. Remain sta- 
tionary while counting one, two, three and 
then repeat the operation as before at a rate 
gradually increasing from four or five to 
fifteen times a minute and continue this 
bellows motion with the same regularity that 
is seen in the natural motions of breathing. 
If after three or four minutes, natural breath- 
ing is not restored, then without stopping 
the movements turn the patient on the stom- 
ach as directed for removing water, rolling 
the body in the opposite direction from that 



80 EMERGENCY HINTS 

in which it was first turned. Continue the 
artificial respiration for from one to four 
hours, or until the patient breathes, and for 
a while after this aid the breathing- by help- 
ing pressure. Continue drying and rubbing, 
which should have been continued from the 
first. Rub the limbs upward towards the 
body and continue friction even after steady 
natural breathing is restored. Apply hot 
flannels to stomach and armpits and use hot- 
water bottles, heated bricks or the quickest 
means at hand to keep up artificial heat. 

When breathing is fully established the 
patient should be placed in a warm bed with 
plenty of fresh air and left to perfect rest. 
A little brandy and water, or other stimulant, 
should be given every ten or fifteen minutes 
during the first hour. The great danger now 
lies in congestion of the lungs and if perfect 
rest is not maintained for at least 48 hours 
death often results. In case any dif^culty in 
breathing develops apply a mustard plaster 
over breast, or assist with artificial respira- 
tion. 

Never give up trying to revive a drowned 
person, unless he has been under water 
over 30 minutes, or until absolutely sure that 
there is no hope. Four hours' work has been 
needed to revive apparently drowned persons 



EMERGENCY HINTS 81 

and people who have been under water for 
25 minutes have been resuscitated. 

No amount of work is too great when a 
human life may be saved and it too frequentl}^ 
happens that attempts are abandoned too 
soon, whereas by more patience and persever- 
ance the patient's life might have been saved. 



CHAPTER V 

HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 
The Compass and How to Use It 

Every boy should know how to find direc- 
tion, how to use a compass, how to find his 
way by the stars and sun, how to steer a boat 
by compass, how to calculate the height of 
various objects and how to determine the dis- 
tance across rivers, ponds, ravines or other 
areas. These things are all useful whether 
on land or sea, on prairie or in the woods, 
in valleys or on mountain tops. In addition 
to the real value and use of such knowledge 
you will find that a surprising amount of fun 
may be obtained by employing it in many 
ways. 

Of course the commonest method of deter- 
mining the direction of one object from an- 
other, or of finding your way or steering a 
boat, is by means of a compass (Fig. i). 
Most boys have some idea of the use of a 
compass and are familiar with the cardinal 
points of North, South, East and West, but 
only a few boys can name more than eight 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 83 

of the compass-points correctly and in proper 
order. Under many conditions this might 
prove sufficient for ordinary directions, for 
the landsman seldom finds it necessary to 
state that a certain wind is from the North- 
east by North, or that a certain spot is 
East One-quarter South from another. If 
he states that the wind is Northeast or 
that the spot referred to is East it serves 
his purpose well enough. It would be quite 
a different matter were he sailing a boat, 
following a trail through the woods or cross- 
ing a desert or plain. Under these circum- 
stances such general and indefinite directions 
would never answer, for while on a short trip, 
or where the destination could be plainly 
seen for some distance, a point or two off" 
would make little difference, yet in the course 
of a twenty- to fifty-mile trip the variation 
of a quarter-point might result in the traveller 
missing the objective point altogether. You 
can easily imagine what might happen if you 
were travelling across a desert, where your life 
depended upon reaching an oasis or water- 
hole only a few hundred feet in diameter. A 
variation of a fraction of a point under such 
conditions would carry you so far to one 
side that you would never find the coveted 
water and would wander about until ex- 



84 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 



FiG.l 




V> ^ . 



Fig. 6 



■^ 



1^ 






>' 



.V^' 



hausted and perishing from thirst. The boy 
who takes to the woods must be careful of 
little things, and therefore I advise you all to 
spend ample time in studying the compass 
until you can rattle off the thirty-two points 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 85 

or " box the compass " in sailor's parlance, 
with ease and rapidity both backward and 
forward, and can tell a direction or steer a 
boat within a quarter-point. In travelling, or 
sailing, a floating card compass (Fig. 2) is 
far superior to a compass with moving needle 
(Fig. 3), but as they are much more bulky 
and cumbersome than a pocket compass they 
are better suited to boat use than to tramp- 
ing outfits. In the floating card compass the 
needle is attached to or is part of the card 
bearing the points. This card either revolves 
upon a pivot or floats upon mercury or other 
material while its encircling case remains 
stationary and a small line or mark known 
as the '' lubber's mark " is indicated on the 
case and should be so adjusted that when 
facing the north the North on card and lub- 
ber's mark should be in line. In the movable 
needle compass the card with points remains 
stationary while a pivoted needle swings over 
it. In a boat the floating card compass is al- 
most a necessity, for with it the boat's head is 
pointed in the direction or " course " desired, 
whereas with a needle compass the card or 
dial remains stationary with the boat and the 
needle shifts about. As a result the helms- 
man must do some mental calculation to 
know how to hold his craft in order to follow 



86 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 

a given course. This peculiarity will be better 
understood by looking at Fig. 4. You will 
see that in " A " a floating card compass is 
illustrated and that the boat is headed North- 
east while in " B," although the same course 
is being steered, yet the boat's head is point- 
ing to the " North " of the compass and 
the needle is pointing Northwest, or in 
other words you are reading your card back- 
wards, and to steer a Northeast course you 
must swing your helm so as to bring the 
needle to Northwest. Of course this can 
be avoided by shifting the position of the 
compass so as to bring the needle directly 
over " North " and then steer so that the 
boat is in line with Northeast as shown at 
" C." This is frequently very inconvenient if 
not impossible, for in a seaway a compass will 
jump about and become very erratic unless 
fastened securely. On land, however, it is 
quite a different matter, for it is an easy mat- 
ter to turn your compass about until the 
needle and the " North " are in line and then 
head in the desired direction. Small pocket 
compasses are usually of the movable needle 
type, but they are made with swinging cards 
and these are so much better and easier to 
use that I advise every boy to obtain one if 
possible. 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 87 

It is excellent training to practise sailing 
and walking by compass, and a novel and in- 
teresting game of '' Hare and Hounds " may 
be played by the " Hares '' starting out and 
tramping in a course across country, mean- 
while keeping a watch on the compass and 
travelling as nearly in a straight line as pos- 
sible, and at the end of two or three miles 
erect a flag or other mark readily seen for a 
few hundred yards. These boys should then 
give the compass direction and approximate 
distance to the " Hounds," who must find the 
goal by following the compass course. As the 
players become more expert the distance 
should be increased and the goal made smaller 
and the game more interesting and instructive 
by changing the course at certain given points 
and distances. Thus a course may be given 
as " Northeast by East for two miles to a 
white flag; then North-Northeast for one 
mile to a dead pine tree and hence Northwest 
for one mile to a pile of stones marked with 
a cross." On the water the same game may be 
played by placing buoys or stakes at certain 
distances and then by following the given 
course try to locate them. If a small flag, or 
marked rag, be placed on the buoy this may 
be brought back by the " Hounds " as a 
trophy. 



88 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 

The game may also be varied by making- 
charts or maps of the country covered and 
requiring the " Hounds " to find the hidden 
object by following the mapped direction. 
Later on I will give directions for readily 
making fairly accurate maps without the use 
of surveying instruments and you will find 
this a most interesting and instructive occu- 
pation. 

Although the amateur should always de- 
pend more or less upon a compass and should 
invariably be provided with one when on a 
trip in unfamiliar country or on unknown 
waters, yet many old sailors, woodsmen and 
hunters never carry a compass but possess a 
natural talent or '' sixth sense " of direction 
and can never become lost in strange woods 
or in strange lands. Personally I have this 
" sense " to a wonderful degree, and although 
I have tramped and hunted in many out-of- 
the-way lands and in the heavy forests of the 
tropics, I have never been lost and have never 
used a compass on land. But no matter how 
well developed this sense may be, a compass 
is a safeguard and convenience and the best 
sailors will often become confused and lost 
in a fog unless provided with this useful 
instrument. 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 89 

Using a Watch for a Compass 

Aside from the compass there are many 
ways of ascertaining one's general direction, 
for to the well-trained woodsman the " lay " 
of the land, the bark and moss on trees, the 
flow of streams and the direction of light will 
all help in determining the compass points. 
A very useful substitute for the compass is 
an ordinary watch, for while known to com- 
paratively few, yet in reality a watch is a 
fairly accurate compass, although its use as 
such necessitates a knowledge of the location 
of the sun or bright sunshine. To use the 
watch for this purpose, place it on a level 
spot and turn it until the hour hand points 
directly at the sun, — or until the hand's 
shadow is directly underneath the hand itself. 
When this position is attained the south will 
be exactly half-way between the indicated 
hour and the figure 12 (if before noon count- 
ing from left to right or southward, and if 
after noon counting backward, or from right 
to left). This is very nearly correct for our 
latitude during the year, but while it will 
serve for all ordinary uses and distances, the 
mariner who depended upon his watch would 
have a hard time. The illustrations (Fig. 5) 
will make the above more readily understood^ 



90 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 

for in one figure the watch is shown in the 
position at 6 a. m., when the south would 
be at 9, and in the second figure the watch 
is shown with hour hand pointed to sun at 
4 p. m., when south is found at 2. By re- 
membering this it may prove of service at 
times, but whether using a watch or a real 
compass you should never expect too much 
from it; a compass cannot show your way 
home unless you know in a general way which 
direction home is, and if at a loss as to which 
way to travel; it is mainly of value in keeping 
you from turning round and round and travel- 
ling in a circle. 

When a small boy I was once told a funny 
story by an old trapper which may help you 
to remember this. An old Indian took a 
fancy to a compass seen in the trader's store 
and asked what it was used for. He was 
told that with it the white men found their 
way from place to place, and, thinking this 
a fine idea, the redman at once traded off 
furs for the compass. A few days later he 
wished to visit a friend who was camping and 
trapping somewhere in the forest. Taking his 
compass the Indian placed it on a rock and 
said: ''Now tell me where Joe Bemis' camp 
be." Of course no reply came from the com- 
pass and the Indian became vexed and cried; 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 91 

" Tell me where Joe Bemis' camp be or I break 
um face." As the compass still gave no sign 
the Indian grasped his hatchet and smashed 
the compass, exclaiming: "Huh! No speak 
um Mik Mak, break um face, now go find 
Joe Bemis' camp myself." 

Finding Your Way by the North Star 

In addition to knowing the points of the 
compass and how to use this useful instru- 
ment, every boy should also learn the posi- 
tion of the North or Pole Star. This is 
readily done by finding the " Great Bear " 
or " Great Dipper," — the beautiful large con- 
stellation in the northern sky. By following 
in a straight line from the two outer stars 
of the dipper, the uppermost of which would 
form the " lip " of the dipper or the " breast " 
of the bear, the North Star will be the first 
bright star in range of these two stars in the 
constellation, looking from the bottom, or 
foot, of the dipper upward. As the dipper 
revolves around the pole star it will some- 
times be above it; but by running your 
imaginary line from the foot or bottom of the 
constellation across the " breast " or '' lip " 
and then straight on, the north star may al- 
ways be located if the night is clear. The 
diagram (Fig. 6) will make this clearer. 



92 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 

Finding the Height of Objects 

Almost as important as a knowledge of 
direction is a knowledge of distance, size or 





Fio.4 




fJJ-i' 



height. How often we would be glad to 
know the real distance from one spot to an- 
other; the width of a bay or river we cannot 
cross, or the height of some tree, building or 
similar object. Usually we have to merely 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 93 

guess at such things, and often arrive at a 
result far from the truth, for distance and 
height are very deceptive. We are accus- 
tomed to comparisons in everything and un- 
consciously compare one thing w^ith some 
more familiar thing constantly. Doubtless 
you have all noticed hov^ huge the rising 
moon appears and yet how^ small it seems 
after it has fully risen. This is mainly be- 
cause we compare the moon v^ith trees, build- 
ings, etc., when near the horizon, which we 
cannot do after it is high in the heavens be- 
yond surrounding objects. 

Even more remarkable is the deceptive 
effect of atmospheric conditions. In the 
clear air of mountainous countries objects 
many miles away appear close at hand, and 
in Colorado they relate how an Eastern man 
looked from his hotel window the morning 
after his arrival and saw a towering moun- 
tain peak seemingly close at hand and started 
out to walk to it before breakfast. Of course 
he tramped for hours without apparently 
arriving any nearer the mountain, and finally 
asked a native how far it was. Imagine his 
dismay at learning it was nearly fifty miles 
away. A little later a native found the East- 
erner standing at the edge of a tiny brook 
removing his clothing. When asked for an 



94 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 

explanation he said he was going to swim 
across the brook. " Swim across! " exclaimed 
the Westerner; "why, that brook isn't six 
feet wide." '' I know it don't look so," said 
the tourist, " but judging by your mountains 
it may be a mighty long swim." 

Any boy can easily ascertain all ordinary 
heights and distances, to within a few feet, 
without instruments of any sort, and you 
will find it a most interesting and fascinating 
sport to measure trees, buildings and the 
width of streams, lakes, etc., in this manner. 

Perhaps to determine the height of an 
object is the easier of the two methods and 
this is accomplished as follows: Erect a stick 
or pole in the ground so that a definite length 
(say six feet) projects upward (Fig. 7 A-B). 
Now place your face close to the ground and 
sight across the top of the pole to the top 
of the tree which you wish to measure. Back 
off or crawl nearer until the top of the pole 
comes exactly in line with the top of the 
tree and your eye as shown by line C-E. 
Now measure the distance from your eye to 
base of pole (C-B) and distance from base 
of tree to your eye (C-D). Suppose you find 
the distance from pole to eye is 20 feet and 
from tree to eye is 120 feet, then by the simple 
sum in ratio of 20 : 6 : : 120 : X, we obtain 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 95 

the result 36, so that 36 feet is the correct 
height of the tree. 

To find the distance of an object or the 
width of a river is equally simple. Select 
some prominent object as a building, isolated 
tree or rock on the farther side of the river 
and use this as a sight (Fig. 8 X). Now make 
a small equilateral triangle from three 
straight sticks and lay these on the ground 
in such a way that by sighting along one 
edge the points A-B will be in line with the 
object X. Mark the three angles of this 
triangle with small sticks or stones and walk 
along as nearly in line with the stones A-C as 
possible until the points E-F are in line with 
X, and then move about until the side D-F 
is in line with the marks at A-C. Now by 
measuring the distance from A to F you 
can determine the distance from G to X, for 
this will always be just % of the distance 
from A to F. Thus if from A to F is 80 
feet, you may be sure that the distance from 
G to X is 70 feet. 

Making Maps and Charts 

The knowledge of how to find direction 
and distance is of the utmost value in map- 
making. Of course real maps and accurate 



96 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 

charts are made by the aid of various splen- 
did and expensive instruments, but for boy's 
use or for rough sketch-maps, instruments are 
not necessary. Of course such maps would 
never serve as a basis for building a railway, 
as grades, elevations and hollows can only be 
illustrated in a general way and the heights 
are merely approximate. For the boy 
hunter, trapper, camper, sailor or tramper or 
for the purpose of helping other boys to find 
certain spots or for use in lumbering work or 
for reference, such home-made charts will 
serve every purpose. In lumber districts 
even the roughest of maps will be very useful, 
for they can be made during the summer, and 
by their use the quantity of timber, wood 
roads, best trees, and other matters may be 
readily found in winter as required. The boy 
hunter and trapper will find maps of his dis- 
trict useful, for by them he can locate promis- 
ing spots, indicate where to set his traps, and 
by adding notes and details may in time, 
possess a very accurate record of his hunting 
grounds. All the map-making may be done 
in warm weather, and when the country is 
covered deep in snow and the brooks and 
rivers sealed with ice, runways, crossings and 
dens can be rediscovered through the medium 
of the home-made map without being obliged 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 97 

to tramp aimlessly about in heavy snow. To 
the boy sailor, charts of the rivers, harbours 
and lakes in his vicinity w^ill prove most 
valuable, even w^here accurate government 
charts are available. Although the latter 
are extremely accurate as far as channels and 
the deeper v^aterways are concerned, yet in 
many of them small rocks, reefs, shoals, etc., 
close to shore, or in shallov^ v^ater, are omit- 
ted or only indicated in a general v^ay. These 
are the very obstacles that are most im- 
portant to the small-boat sailor, for in the 
deeper channels there is little danger to a 
light-draft boat while close to shore, — so close 
in fact that the bottom is of no interest to 
large vessels, — sunken snags, rocks and bars 
may prove dangerous to a boy's craft. 

The best form in which to keep and make 
maps is a good-sized note-book or sketch- 
book. The larger the pages the better, but 
they should not be cumbersome to carry. It 
is a good plan to make the preliminary 
sketches for the maps in one book, or on 
loose paper, and later copy them carefully 
in the permanent book. Quite often one 
makes a map or chart as he travels and the 
constant handling, numerous notes and 
changes result in anything but clean and 
neat work. A knowledge of the compass and 



98 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 

its use, how to find distance and height and 
familiarity with " pacing " distances are of 
importance. To learn to '' pace " properly 
you should first measure off various distances 
of from 30 to 300 yards on fairly level 
ground, and walking over these with long, 
even steps, count the number taken. The 
standard pace of an average man is three 
feet, but most men and nearly all boys pace 
shorter than this until accustomed to the 
work, and you will probably find that your 
paces do not average over 20 or 30 inches. 
By going over the distances again and again 
and taking longer steps you can soon get in 
the habit of making your paces average three 
feet. When this is at last accomplished over 
the known distances, try pacing off various 
distances on new ground and then measur- 
ing them. Of course some short boys, or boys 
with short legs, will be unable to pace in three- 
feet strides, but as long as you know the aver- 
age length of your paces and can make them 
regularly and evenly, the actual length of the 
stride matters little. It is just as easy to fig- 
ure up a distance from twenty-four-inch steps 
as from those of thirty-six inches. Although 
pacing is a very useful " rough and ready " 
way of determining distances, yet often one 
requires more accurate work. In the woods, 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 99 

or on very rough and uneven ground, pacing 
cannot be used with good results and under 
such conditions a tape w^ill prove most val- 
uable. A steel surveyor's tape is, of course, 
the best, but a good strong linen tape v^ith 
large figures will answer. Should occasion 
arrive where a level is desirable — as in de- 
termining the depth of a depression or river- 
bed or the height of a small hill — an excel- 
lent level may be constructed from some bits, 
of light wood and a pail of water. 

We will imagine ourselves equipped with 
compass, tape, hatchet and small pail and 
start out on a map-making trip. Leaving the 
road we start across the field toward the 
distant woods. This is a good place to start 
our practice work, so let us jot down the 
first notes on your map paper. Draw a line 
at one edge of the paper and mark " road." 
Now look at your compass and find some 
prominent landmark; the tall pine directly 
north will do finely, while the old barn due 
east will serve for another bearing. Indicate 
the points of the compass at your starting 
point and jot down the notes of pine tree due 
north and old barn east. To determine our 
starting point more accurately we must meas- 
ure with the tape to some nearby object, as 
for example the scraggy wild-apple tree a 



100 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 

few paces up the road. The distance is found 
to be forty-five yards and so we mark a spot 
to indicate it on our map, giving direction as 
east-southeast and " distance forty-five yards." 
We propose to enter the woods on the 
other side of the field and as the latter has 
no interest for us and would occupy most of 
our map if included in proportion to the 
other objects or " to scale," we merely write 
'' open field " across the blank space above our 
starting point. Now glance at the compass 
and start pacing across the field. We find 
our direction is west-northwest, and we 
write this down and start forward. One 
hundred and twenty paces from our starting 
point we reach a bramble thicket. This is a 
mean place to tramp through, so mark " bram- 
bles one hundred and twenty paces west- 
northwest from starting point." To make 
a detour around the brambles we walk twenty- 
five paces west and then turn to due north- 
west. Notes are made of this, and two hun- 
dred and forty-six paces further on brings us 
to the edge of the woods. These facts having 
been entered on our map, we notice a broad 
shallow depression near us, with a ledge of 
rocks jutting up beyond, while on the other 
side a large oak tree attracts attention. These 
are good marks and we quickly determine 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 101 



U^'G £.Jflrh,'fi 




'*A*r , 



Pio.12 



foii^ 










SZff-/t/fi \ 



SiH hole. 






% 



.i^St^rhitjPet'xt- 



A/>/>l« trff 



102 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 

the distance and direction of the ledge and 
the distance and direction of oak tree by 
using the methods described under " Finding 
direction and distance." The map will now 
appear as in Fig. 9. This is a good oppor- 
tunity to experiment with our level and by 
its use find the depth of the little " sink-hole." 
Cut a thin flat piece of wood, a little shorter 
than the diameter of the pail, and in this 
insert two little pegs or '' masts " of exactly 
equal length, one in each end of the thin 
piece or float (Fig. 10). Fill the pail with 
water at the nearby brook and cut a straight, 
light sapling or branch. Measure off ten feet 
on this with your tape and mark them plainly 
by cutting through the bark into the white 
wood beneath. 

Our level is now ready for use. Set the 
pail at the edge of the sink-hole and while 
one of us sights across the two '' masts " the 
other should walk into the depression, holding 
the rod vertical with one end on the ground. 
Sight carefully across the " masts," keeping 
the two tops exactly in line, and when the 
rodman has reached the point where the last 
notch on his rod is exactly in line with the 
two tops of the sights, have him halt. The 
highest notch is ten feet, so we make a note 
of this and, with tape, measure off the distance 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 103 

from pail to rod. This gives us thirty feet 
and we now move the pail to the spot where 
the rod was, and proceed as before with the 
rodman walking toward the bottom of the 
hole. Presently we notice that the marks 
on the rod are moving up from our sights, 
so we know our comrade has passed the 
deepest spot and is ascending. He must, 
therefore, return slowly until we find the 
lowest spot, whereupon we find the reading 
to be six feet. The tape is again brought into 
play and measurements show the distance at 
last observation to be fifty-four feet. Now 
we know that the hole is eighty-four feet 
from our side to the deepest point and that 
the depth from edge to centre is sixteen feet. 
Moreover as we have the heights and dis- 
tances of two levellings we can draw an ac- 
curate diagram of a sectional view of the pit, 
showing the grade of its sides. This will 
be easy to accomplish by laying off the two 
angles as illustrated in Fig. ii. You will 
find this very fascinating work and in com- 
pany with your friends you can make inter- 
esting sectional diagrams of cuttings, pits, 
quarries, beds of rivers, hillsides and many 
other natural formations. 

As we emerge from the sink-hole and start 
into the woods, a grouse whirrs up from 



104 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 

under foot and beneath the shelter of a clump 
of thick brush we find her nest with its twelve 
buffy eggs. This will be a fine thing to 
photograph some other day, but can we be 
sure of finding it again? Without the map 
we might have hard work, but with it, it will 
prove easy. Standing by the nest and sight- 
ing back through the trees, we catch a glimpse 
of our ledge and find the direction south- 
southwest. Turning slowly about we find 
a large chestnut tree due east by north, while 
a dead stub bears due west. The distance 
from the nest to each of these is soon de- 
termined and the results written on our 
sketch, which now appears as in Fig. 12. 
Of course we could have found the nest again 
by marking a tree or sticking up a peeled 
sapling, but such a method might result in 
the nest being disturbed and would moreover 
give us no permanent record of the nest on 
our map, and the pleasant recollections of 
interesting things brought up by looking 
over a map is one of its most valuable fea- 
tures. From the nest we walk through the 
woods in a westerly direction, for with con- 
stant detours around trees and other objects 
our course is more or less crooked and we can- 
not spend the time to make notes of all our 
turns and twists; still, frequent glances at the 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 105 

compass show our course to be in a general 
western direction, while observations of the 
trees and ground show us that white oak 
trees predominate, that the ground is dry and 
rather sandy and a measurement of a few 
trees gives their trunks as averaging four 
feet in circumference and their height to the 
main branches as twenty feet. These are 
valuable notes, and to further aid us in the 
future we occasionally " blaze " a mark on 
a tree beside our trail. All of these points 
are entered on the map and presently we 
reach the edge of a wood road. Before pro- 
ceeding let us make an entry of the surround- 
ings to locate our position more accurately. 
Far down the road we see an old log bridge, 
and pacing to this, find it two hundred and 
sixty yards. The road runs northeast to the 
bridge and then turns and runs east. In 
the other direction we find the road runs 
southwest for two hundred and ten yards and 
then turns to northwest. These facts, written 
on the map, will locate our position nicely. 
At the bridge we look down on a little wood- 
land brook, and presently we see a mink steal 
out from the crevices of the bank and 
cautiously travelling down the waterside he 
leaps upon a fallen log and disappears in a 
cavity. This is interesting, and as his actions 



106 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 

plainly show that it is his usual haunt, we 
will be sure to locate the spot for trapping 
purposes next winter. Again resuming our 
tramp, we travel over the old road and pres- 
ently find it ascending a rise and note that 
birches and chestnuts are mixed with the 
general oak growth. This should be entered 
on the map as well as any distinct turns in 
the road. Soon the road descends and the 
earth becomes damp and presently we reach 
the borders of a dense alder swamp. The 
swamp extends on either hand and the road 
passes through it east by north. All this time 
we have been talking and have neglected to 
note distances, so let us at least determine 
some distance to locate the swamp more 
accurately. Looking back up the road we 
estimate the distance to the crest of hill at 
three hundred and ten yards, and pacing it, 
find it to be two hundred and eighty; looking 
down the other side to the bridge we guess 
it to be at least twice as far and so enter the 
fact. The distance across the swamp is six 
hundred yards and just beyond we enter a 
large clearing. This space is practically oval, 
is four hundred and sixteen yards across; 
eight hundred and five yards long and runs 
N.N.W. and S.S.E. At its northern corner 
is a pile of about six cords of mixed wood, 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 107 

while a broken cart wheel forty-six yards 
from the entrance of road on the western edge 
will serve to identify this clearing whenever 
we find it again. Walking down the clearing 
we find a little path which leads us to where a 
sparkling brook crosses our way. The brook 
crosses ninety yards from the clearing and 
we wonder if it is the same brook which we 
crossed on the old wood road, when we saw 
the mink. It would save a long walk if it 
proved such and so we follow up its bed, 
until we find the brook issuing from a deep 
swamp. Perhaps this is our alder swamp 
near the clearing. If so we will soon know, 
for by reference to our map we find the 
swamp was but six hundred yards across and 
that its eastern edge bordered on the clear- 
ing. So we turn to the east and presently 
come out on the clearing, about half-way 
down its length. This gives us additional 
data regarding the size of the • swamp, and 
we now know that it extends for at least four 
hundred yards south of the wood road. Re- 
turning to where the brook issued from the 
alders we find the ground too swampy to 
enter, but again referring to our sketch, we 
find there was no brook crossing the swamp 
at the road and that the mink brook was the 
only stream encountered on our walk. We 



108 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 

therefore must skirt the western edge of the 
swamp to find where the brook enters, and 
doing this, we soon encounter it again. Here 
we find the brook flows from the west a trifle 
north and as this would indicate that it is the 
same brook that crosses the road, we continue 
a little further until we sight the old bridge. 
Rather than go back by this circuitous route 
we decide to cut straight through the woods 
and by referring to our map and notes and 
looking at our compass, we start in a direc- 
tion due southeast. Presently we pass a tree 
freshly " blazed '' and know we are passing 
our first trail and soon we see the open field 
before us and come out into the sunlight 
close to the ledge of granite where we first 
entered the woods. This will complete our 
first day's experience in map-making, and 
the result of our labours should appear as in 
the illustration. Fig. 13. 

If you are a boy sailor and wish to make 
sailing charts, your method will be some- 
what similar but in many ways will differ 
greatly. Here a tape, or knowledge of pacing, 
is of little value and your distances must be 
determined either by patent log, guesswork, 
dead reckoning or by bearing on shore ob- 
jects whose distances are well known. If you 
use a motor boat and its speed is accurately 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 109 

known it is an easy matter to determine dis- 
tances by timing the run and deducting or 
adding the speed of tides or winds, accord- 
ing as to whether they are with or against 
you. In a sailboat, dead reckoning is next 
to impossible for a beginner and good judg- 
ment and frequent bearings on prominent 
landmarks are necessary. To locate rocks 
or reefs, soundings should be made and the 
state of tide at such times should always be 
noted with care. A rock that would prove 
dangerous at low water, or half tide, might 
be six feet beneath the surface at high water 
and the depth of water on a reef — unless the 
state of tide is given also — is of little help. 
Most rocks and reefs can be readily located 
by a long sounding rod or a weighted line, 
but frequently one strikes a rock which is so 
narrow or pointed that it is next to impos- 
sible to find it with line or rod. When a 
rock of this character is encountered you 
should use two boats and a drag line. This 
is merely a long line with several fathoms 
kept on the bottom by lead or iron weights 
attached at intervals. Each boat takes one 
end of the line and pulling along slowly a few 
yards apart, drag the entire bottom between 
them and any rocks are soon located and are 
readily sounded and buoyed. The accom- 



no HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 



Fig. 14 







Fig. 13 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 111 

panying illustration of a home-made chart of 
a river and harbour will show the sort of 
work you should strive to accomplish (Fig. 

14). 

In this case there were already plenty of 
excellent charts of the main river and the har- 
bour channels, but these were so large that 
the boys did not care to carry them about 
and there were no charts obtainable of the 
" gut " or cut-off across the mud-flats. It 
occurred to the boys that if a channel could 
be found across the flats which would ac- 
commodate their little launch at half tide it 
would save a run of several miles down the 
river and around the island to the bay. The 
map shows how well they succeeded and 
while formerly the flats and their channels 
had been beneath the notice of the govern- 
ment charts, yet since the boys found and 
charted its waterways it has become of con- 
siderable value to light-draft boats and is 
well illustrated on more recent charts. 

Whenever you find a rock, reef, sunken 
spile, snag or any other impediment to navi- 
gation you should note down its bearings 
accurately. A tree, rock, hill, house or barn 
on shore answers very well as a bearing, 
but of course you must give cross bearings 
in order to locate the object properly. As an 



112 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 



Fig. 10 







^ 8-f ft-, t^t^-^ius 



Fig. 11 




Tf^H ?meh'f<^ 



Tto. 15 




Mt. /^iietree 1' 



example take the little diagram of a bit of 
shore shown in Fig. 15. Here the bearings 
are given for several rocks. By having three 
bearings to each rock there is no danger of 
mistaking a location and where distances can- 



HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 113 

not be measured the importance of having 
such is most important. Thus in the case 
of rock '' A." If the distance offshore was 
known, two bearings would be ample, but as 
this is not given the third bearing serves 
instead. Aim at accuracy and full details in 
your work and keep on adding notes and 
sketches to the original map or chart until 
you are sure you have embodied everything 
of interest or importance. If I am not greatly 
mistaken you will find map- and chart-making 
a most enjoyable sport, and, moreover, it may 
sometime prove of the utmost value. The 
miner, forester, sailor, engineer or explorer 
who can furnish an accurate, if crude or 
rough, map of the country over which he has 
travelled, possesses an enormous advantage 
over the man who is compelled to depend 
upon the maps of others, or must trust to 
memory or mere sketches. 



CHAPTER VI 

SAVAGE WEAPONS AND HOW TO MAKE THEM 
Indian Bows and Arrows 

The majority of boys who are fond of out- 
of-doors life have a strong desire to get back 
to primitive conditions and " play Indian." 
Scarcely a boy exists who has not at one 
time or another danced impromptu war- 
dances, uttered weird cries which he thought 
were war-whoops and has painted his face 
and stuck feathers in his hat, and imagined 
he was a noble redman. 

While many of the Indian's traits and 
habits are scarcely to be recommended for 
civilised boys to follow, yet the self-reliance, 
healthy life and knowledge of woodcraft and 
nature, which are brought about by imitating 
the savage, are most beneficial. 

Even if the outdoors boy does not play 
Indian, he will find an added interest and 
much greater pleasure in his woodland life 
if he makes his own weapons and traps, con- 
structs his own camps, tans the hides of his 
game, fashions his own moccasins, and de- 

114 



SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 115 

pends upon his individual prowess as a hunter 
and trapper for a large portion of his food 
and other necessities of life. 

Almost any boy can become a good shot 
with a rifle or shot-gun and with modern fire- 
arms comparatively little real skill is required 
to hunt and kill game, and all too many boys 
carry a gun or rifle constantly when in the 
woods and blaze away at every living thing 
in mere wantonness. This is a practice which 
cannot be too strongly condemned, as un- 
necessary slaughter is cruel, wasteful and 
unsportsmanlike, and with firearms the ad- 
vantage is all on the side of the hunter. 
While a sort of latent savage instinct causes 
civilised boys and men to enjoy hunting, yet 
the real pleasure is in the chase itself and not 
in the actual killing. Hunting is the best of 
training for body, mind and eye, but far more 
real pleasure may be obtained by using bow 
and arrows for weapons than by the use of 
your up-to-date gun. The boy who hunts 
with bow and arrows and depends upon 
matching his own skill and cunning against 
that of his quarry gets far more enjoyment 
and benefit from his hunt than his friend with 
the gun, and gives his prey a fair show be- 
sides. Moreover, wild creatures, hunted with 
bow and arrows, seldom become shy or wild. 



116 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 

even if shot at repeatedly, whereas the report 
of a gun soon frightens all the game within 
hearing. 

Even if you do not hunt, a good bow and 
arrows will lend added pleasure to your out- 
of-door life, for target shooting at imitation 
animals can be made quite interesting and 
exciting. 

Many of my readers may scoff at the idea 
of using a bow and arrow, for nowadays these 
implements have come to be regarded as mere 
toys or playthings by most people. You 
should not forget that the bow was the most 
important weapon of our ancestors for many 
centuries, and that the prowess of the Eng- 
lish archers won many a hard-fought battle- 
field and laid the foundation for the great 
British Empire. Even our pioneer fore- 
fathers found the Indian bows and arrows 
dangerous weapons, while at the present time 
many tribes depend entirely upon the bow 
for hunting. Archery reached its highest de- 
velopment in the days of Robin Hood and 
the English bowmen, and while the stories of 
their deeds are doubtless greatly exaggerated, 
there is no question of the remarkable skill 
acquired by many of the British archers. 

It is an easy matter to become proficient 
in the use of the bow, and within the last 



SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 117 

few years many lovers of out-of-door life have 
adopted the bow and arrow as hunting weap- 
ons. It seems almost incredible that geese 
and ducks may be killed in flight by an 
archer, and yet such men as Maurice Thomp- 
son and his followers have repeatedly accom- 
plished this feat. 

Armed with a really good bow and prop- 
erly made arrows any boy may easily become 
an expert archer, for practice is the only re- 
quirement, and you will be mightily sur- 
prised to find what a lot of fun you can de- 
rive from the use of these simple weapons. 
No one who has not experienced the sensa- 
tion can possibly imagine the thrill felt by 
the archer at the twang of a taut bowstring 
and the soft whistle of a well-driven arrow, 
or the breathless interest with which he 
watches the flight of his feathered shaft as in 
a graceful curve it speeds straight and true 
to its mark. 

The first and most important requirements 
for the archer are perfect bows and arrows, 
and of the two the arrows are far more diffi- 
cult to make and are of greater importance. 
As there is little chance for outdoor life dur- 
ing the late winter and early spring, much of 
your time may be happily employed in pre- 
paring your equipment for the coming season, 



118 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 

and no portion of your outfit is worthy of 
more care and trouble than your bow and 
arrows. It takes time and patience to make 
these weapons properly, and it is an excellent 
plan to have several bows and a large num- 
ber of arrows and strings on hand. 

The first step in making a bow is to secure 
the proper wood. Yew, Cedar, Orange Wood, 
Lancewood, Ash, Elm, Hornbeam, Apple and 
Hickory all make good bows, but of all the 
native woods, I prefer good, straight-grained 
white Hickory. The wood should be thor- 
oughly seasoned winter-cut sticks, and if 
there is a carriage or wagon shop in your 
town, you will find that the best place to 
obtain the right material. Bows vary greatly 
in length, width, thickness and shape with 
different tribes and people, but as a rule the 
long, slender bows are best adapted for target 
work and long range, while the shorter and 
broader forms are more suitable for hunting. 

The North American Indians use short, 
broad bows, while the Central and South 
Americans use very long, slender bows, and 
both seem to succeed equally well. The 
arrows vary as much as the bows and many 
of the South and Central American tribes use 
arrows four to six feet in length and entirely 
destitute of feathers. With such weapons I 



SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 119 

have seen them kill birds from the tops of 
tall forest trees and shoot fish several feet 
beneath the surface of rapid mountain 
streams. These peculiar arrows are, how- 
ever, the exception, and you will do best to 
follow the most usual and conventional styles. 

For ordinary hunting use, your stick of 
wood should be about five feet long and two 
inches square and should be cut so that the 
line between heart and sap wood runs exactly 
through the centre. However, you should not 
be discouraged if you cannot obtain a piece 
with both heart and sap wood, for excellent 
bows may be fashioned from clear hickory 
or other wood, provided the grain is straight, 
fine and free from knots or curls. 

The stave should then be worked down 
with draw shave and plane until about an 
inch thick and an inch and a half wide for 
fifteen to eighteen inches in the centre, and 
from this should taper off to about three- 
fourths of an inch wide and half an inch thick 
at the ends.. Great care should be used in 
scraping and working down the bow, in order 
that the heart and sap wood may remain of 
equal thickness the entire length. As you 
work you should test the bow frequently to 
see that both ends bend evenly, and all the 
surface should be scraped with glass, rubbed 



120 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 

smooth with fine sandpaper and kept as 
smooth and even as possible. The bow 
should be flat on one side and slightly convex 
or rounded on the other, and the flat side 
should be the outward side when bow is 
bent (Fig. i). The exact size of the bow 
depends upon your own strength and judg- 
ment, but as a rule a bow drawing at from 
fifteen to thirty pounds is about right for 
boys' use. A short distance from each end 
you should file or cut a smooth diagonal notch 
on each side and connect these by another 
groove across the flat side (Fig. 2). The bow 
should now be rubbed with linseed oil (being 
very careful not to put on too much or the 
spring will be lost), and then rubbed until 
polished with parafline, bayberry wax or sim- 
ilar polish. 

At the centre of the bow a space about six 
inches long should be covered with soft 
leather or cloth, glued in place and with the 
edges neatly sewed together on the back 
side of bow. This serves as a grip for your 
hand and prevents slipping of the arrow 
(Fig. 3). An excellent grip may be made by 
winding the bow with fine and strong waxed 
linen thread or by winding with adhesive 
bicycle tape. The string is now the next 
thing to make, and as bowstrings are often 



SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 121 

broken or frayed, the boy archer should pro- 
vide himself with a number of extra strings. 
Catgut, sinew and rawhide are all used as 
bowstrings, but I have found clear, unbleached 
flax or hemp the best material. To make a 
hemp or flax bowstring secure the best shoe- 
makers' flax and some shoemakers' wax. 
Wax the thread thoroughly and wind it 
around two nails or pegs seven feet apart 
until you have fifteen or twenty strands (Fig. 
4). Wax these and cut through the bunch 
of strands where they cross one of the pegs. 
Divide the strands into three equal parts and 
braid them loosely together. Now wind one 
end of the braided string with fine silk or 
linen thread thoroughly waxed. At the op- 
posite end make a neat, smooth loop by wind- 
ing the string where it goes around the peg 
and then, removing it from the latter, wind 
the loop formed by the unbraided threads 
(Fig. 5). Now slip this loop over one end 
of your bow, draw the other end of string 
around notch in opposite end and bend the 
bow carefully until the string stands out 
about six inches from the bow at its centre 
(Fig. 3). Secure the string by a timber 
hitch (Fig. 6) around the other notch and 
wind a space of six or eight inches in the 
middle of the string with fine silk thread (Fig. 



122 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 

3). Loosen the string by slipping off the loop 
(so it slides down on the bow) (Fig. 2), and 
give all the windings a coat of quick-drying 
varnish or shellac. 

For arrows you may use either White Pine, 
Oregon Spruce, Norway Pine, Ash or Hick- 
ory. For target use, pine arrows will do, but 
for hard use and hunting, ash is the best ma- 
terial. Indians often use straight shoots of 
arrow-wood (Viburnum) and similar shrubs, 
but it is very difficult to obtain these per- 
fectly straight. If you wish to try this sort 
of material you can make the shoots much 
straighter and better by hanging them up 
while green by one end with a heavy weight 
attached to the other and allowing them to 
dry thoroughly in this position. 

In making arrows from wood, secure a 
block of perfectly straight-grained, well- 
seasoned pine or ash about 24 to 28 inches 
long and split this in half; split each of 
these pieces in half again and continue halv- 
ing the pieces until the pieces are all split 
into straight sticks about half an inch to 
three-quarters of an inch square. Place these 
sticks on a smooth level board or bench and 
plane them straight, working around and 
around until the sticks are smooth, fairly 
round and absolutely straight and true. 



SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 123 



When all your sticks are in this state go over 
them with coarse and then fine sandpaper and 
work at them until they are as round and 
smooth as possible. If you work the sand- 



FiG. 7 Fig. 1 



Fig. 2 






Fig. 15 




S-- SMct /•..» A„>( y £■■-» fitk he. 



paper with your hand or fingers your arrows 
will be very likely to have hollows in them, 
and to avoid this cut a half-round groove 
lengthwise of a block of soft wood and place 
your strip of sandpaper in this and use it 
like a plane (Fig. 7). 

The next step is to cut notches in the 
arrows. Examine each stick and determine 



124 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 

which way the grain runs, and in the end 
towards which the grain runs cut a smooth 
notch quarter of an inch deep and wide 
enough to readily admit the wound, central 
part of the bowstring. A fine saw-notch, 
smoothed and widened with a fine file, is the 
best and easiest to make, but very good 
notches may be made with a small-bladed 
penknife (Fig. 8). 

To feather your arrows secure a number 
of stiff wing feathers of some large bird, such 
as turkey, eagle, swan, goose, blue heron, gull, 
cormorant, pelican or crane. Keep the feath- 
ers from each side of the bird by themselves, 
for if feathers from opposite sides are placed 
on one arrow, you will obtain very poor re- 
sults, owing to the different curves of the 
feathers. Strip the feathers or plumes, with 
a thin piece of the midrib attached, from the 
quill and cut these into pieces of even length 
and trim so that a short piece of the midrib 
projects at either end (Fig. 9). Now mark 
three lines on your arrows, spaced equal dis- 
tances apart and so arranged that one comes 
opposite and at right angles to the notch, 
while the others are nearly parallel with it 
(Fig. 10). These lines should be drawn on 
with a ruler, or straight edge, and if they all 
turn slightly at an angle or " twist " they 



SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 125 

will result in better feathering, for these 
marks are to guide you in fastening on the 
feathers, and the feathers act like the grooves 
in a rifle barrel, causing the arrow to revolve 
in flight and thus travel straighter and more 
evenly, as well as to prevent its tendency to 
turn end over end or '' keyhole." Your 
arrows being marked, glue the strips of feath- 
ers along the lines, keeping them straight 
and true, and finish by winding or lashing the 
projecting ends of midrib with fine waxed 
silk or linen thread. Indians use sinew to 
wind on the feathers and there is no reason 
why you should not use similar material if 
you wish. Remember, however, that the ma- 
terials used by savages are due to necessity 
and not choice, and that the uncivilised 
man is only too anxious to adopt civilised 
materials whenever he can obtain them. 
Place your arrows in a cool, dry spot, and 
while the glue is thoroughly hardening you 
may prepare the tips, or heads, of your 
arrows. These may be made of hardened 
wood, brass, horn, stone, bone or iron. For 
hunting purposes wooden heads, hardened by 
fire, will answer, but these soon become dull 
and their light weight has a tendency to cause 
erratic flight. Brass or steel ferrule heads 
may be purchased of sporting goods dealers 



126 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 

at nominal cost or may be made by any black- 
smith or machine shop by drilling a hole in 
pieces of rod (Fig. ii, i). Bone makes very 
good heads, but is too brittle for everyday 
use. Horn makes good hunting points and 
is excellent for birds and small animals, al- 
though for birds blunt wooden, or bone, heads 
answer very well (Fig. ii, 2-3-4). In certain 
districts, — such as Ohio and Indiana, — where 
stone arrowheads are found in large num- 
bers, the boy archer may readily obtain ex- 
cellent stone arrowheads for hunting use 
(Fig. II, 6). The best heads of all for hunt- 
ing and general utility are made from thick 
hoop iron, or thin steel, and these can be 
cut up into any shape desired (Fig. 11, 5). 
Steel wire nails may also be used as arrow- 
heads with good results (Fig. 11, 7). Use 
your own taste and judgment as to material 
and shape of heads, and when you obtain 
good results, stick to your own style. The 
heads, — if of ferrule pattern, — are merely 
glued in place, but if made of horn, bone, 
stone or sheet metal, should be inserted in 
a notch, glued in place and the shaft wound 
tightly with very fine copper wire or strong 
thread (Fig. 12). This lashing holds the 
head in place and prevents the arrow from 
splitting, and should be wound as evenly and 



SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 127 

tightly as possible and thoroughly waxed 
and varnished. The last step in finishing 
your arrows is to varnish or paint them, and 
as bright colours render arrows more readily 
seen among brush or grass and serve to dis- 
tinguish one boy's arrows from those of 
another, there is nothing better to use than 
quick-drying enamel paint. 

When the arrows are thoroughly dry you 
may go forth and try your new weapons, al- 
though before doing so I advise you to pre- 
pare a quiver and an arm guard. 

These may well be made while your arrows 
are drying, and while not absolutely neces- 
sary, they are very useful. A bow case and 
quiver combined is easily made from leather 
or canvas and may be ornamented and 
fringed to suit your own fancy (Fig. 13). 
The bow case should be long enough to com- 
pletely cover the bow and loose enough so 
that the bow may be readily and quickly 
drawn when needed. The quiver should be 
a little shorter than the arrows and fairly 
stiff, and a study of the illustration will show 
you how to make it without any description 
(Fig. 14). The arm guard consists of a piece 
of flexible leather, — an old boot leg does very 
well, — laced or buckled on the arm which 
holds the bow to protect the wrist from the 



128 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 

bowstring (Fig. 15). You will also find 
gloves, with tips of fingers cut off, a great 
help for the feathers of the arrow, and the 
snap of the bowstring will soon chafe and 
cut your hand and fingers if you shoot very 
much. 

To use the bow with success you should 
stand with your heels in line with the target, 
your left hand with bow extended toward the 
object and at almost right angles to your 
feet. Place the arrow on the string and 
rest it across the bow and on and across 
your thumb and finger of the bow hand. 
Now hook your first three fingers of the 
right hand over the string with the notched 
end of arrow between the first and second 
fingers (Fig. 16). Raise your bow hand to 
the level of your chin and draw back on the 
string and arrow with your right elbow 
raised almost to your shoulder line and in 
line with the arrow (Fig. 17). Draw until 
the head of the arrow is almost to the bow 
and, glancing along the arrow until in line 
with the target, release the string by open- 
ing the crook of right fingers. Keep your 
left hand and bow fixed till the arrow strikes 
and watch the result. Doubtless your first 
few arrows will fly wide of the mark, but note 
whether they travel to right or left, above or 



SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 129 

below, and you will rapidly improve. Learn 
to draw your bow in exactly the same man- 
ner every time and remember to draw your 
right thumb to the same spot on your cheek 
at each shot. This will result in uniform 
shooting and failures may be more readily 
corrected. You will find that there is a most 
remarkable variation in the way your arrows 
act. Some will fly almost straight, others 
will swing and wabble, others will travel 
through a wide arc or curve and still others 
will prove so erratic that they cannot be 
depended upon to shoot true. Discard the 
latter, if after trying trimming the feathers 
or fitting new heads they are still unsatis- 
factory. All arrows (even though made 
exactly alike) have distinct individuality and 
the successful bowman studies the peculiari- 
ties of each shaft until he knows instinctively 
just which arrow to select from his quiver 
for each and every purpose and condition. 

Some arrows travel best on windy days, 
others on calm days; some will shoot straight- 
est against and others with the wind, and 
some are better for long than short shots, 
and vice versa. An expert arrow-maker can 
fashion an arrow for a certain purpose and 
knows just how to trim and set the feathers 
and balance the head to develop the best 



130 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 

possible results; but this knack can only be 
acquired by long and constant practice and 
experiment and cannot be described or taught. 
As a rule the long, small-feathered arrow is 
best in the wind, while a large-feathered shaft 
is superior in calm weather, but much de- 
pends upon the size and weight of the head 
and the general balance of the arrow. 

In shooting at a mark use an old sack or 
similar object stuffed with hay, leaves or 
straw; or place your mark on a haystack. 
Unless you have arrows to waste, never shoot 
at a hard object, such as a tree, fence, barn 
or post, for the impact will be almost sure to 
spring or split your arrows. 

Excellent practice may be obtained by set- 
ting up cardboard or cloth birds or animals 
backed with a sack of straw, for in this way 
you learn far more than by shooting at a con- 
ventional target of rings and bull's-eye. You 
should commence shooting at a mark not over 
twenty or thirty yards distant and gradually 
increase the range as you become more skil- 
ful. When you can drive three out of five 
arrows into a paper deer at sixty yards, you 
may consider yourself quite proficient and 
need not fear to try your hand at real game. 
You will find, however, that shooting among 
trees or brush is far harder than in the 



SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 131 

open, and for that reason I strongly advise 
you to practise in the woods a great deal, 
setting up your imitation game at various 
distances and under various conditions of 
light and shade. 

A very interesting and instructive game 
may be played by a number of boys travelling 
through the woods and dropping bits of 
paper, or beans, for a '' trail " and setting up 
cardboard or cloth targets representing game, 
in spots that the real game might select as 
resting-places. The archers are to follow the 
" trail " exactly as if they were stalking real 
game, and as soon as they see the quarry are 
to shoot. This method may be varied by 
having the trail-makers attach a string, or 
rope, to their targets and as the archer draws 
to shoot they should endeavour to jerk the 
target out of sight before the arrow reaches 
it, thus more closely imitating the action of 
a wild animal. This will teach the bowmen 
to act more rapidly and surely, and will de- 
velop far more skill in stalking and shooting 
than a fixed target. 

Running or jumping targets are easily de- 
signed and will prove most useful in perfect- 
ing your marksmanship, while the ambitious 
bowman will not be content until he has be- 
come an expert wing shot and can pierce a 



1S2 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 

cloth ball or pasteboard box when thrown 
into the air at ten or a dozen yards. 

Boomerangs 

Nearly every boy has read of boomerangs, 
those strange wooden weapons used by the 
native black men of Australia. Boomerangs, 
in the hands of an Australian native, are 
deadly weapons and with them the black fel- 
lows kill wild game, such as emus, kangaroos, 
etc., and in former times they even fought 
battles with the queer crooked sticks, which 
in skilled hands can perform most wonderful 
feats. 

As means of killing game, boomerangs 
are far inferior to other implements for civil- 
ised man, but it is lots of fun to throw them 
and it does not take a great deal of practice 
to become very expert in their use. 

The ordinary idea that a boomerang will 
invariably return to its thrower is erroneous, 
for in unskilled hands a boomerang is liable 
to do almost anything, and is quite as likely 
to sail away and land at a distance as to re- 
turn. In skilled hands the same weapon may 
be made to return, or not, and by dexterous 
throwing the boomerang may be made to 
perform most marvellous gyrations and weird 



SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 133 

evolutions, eventually returning to the very 
spot from v^hich it was cast. It must always 
be borne in mind, however, that a boomerang, 
after striking any object, remains at the spot 
where it struck and does not continue its 
flight. 

Boomerangs are very easy to make, but 
a great many may be constructed before a 
single one is obtained which will work well. 
There is almost no limit to the number of 
forms of boomerangs which are in use, and 
each variation in form, shape or size has a 
different manner of flight and requires dis- 
tinct manipulation in throwing. It is im- 
possible to tell beforehand which shape will 
work the best or which will perform the most 
wonderful flights, and it is very interesting 
to make several different styles and try each 
one in turn. You will find that one will soar 
high, whirl round and round and return in 
a long graceful curve; another may fly low, 
clipping across the tops of the grass, and will 
suddenly turn, rise perpendicularly and dash 
back at redoubled speed. Another will zig- 
zag and twist, turn somersaults and spirals 
and fall like a plummet from a height, while 
still another may fly straight away, turn 
about and sail back in a most staid and 
matter-of-fact manner. 



134 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 

The accompanying illustration (Fig. i8) 
shows several typical forms, and the types 
shown in Figs. A and B are the conventional 
and best known. They are far harder to 






make than those shown in Figs. D, E, F, 
however, and are no better, in fact I have 
had better success with these angular two- 
piece affairs than with the one-piece curved 



SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 135 

forms. The two-piece boomerangs are glued 
and screwed together, each piece being 
rounded on one side and flat on the other, as 
shown in Fig. I. To make the curved forms, 
a natural bent piece of tree must be shaved 
down to the desired thickness, or a piece of 
wood may be steamed and bent into the de- 
sired shape and then sawed into sections, 
which are worked down to the proper shape 
and thickness (Fig. H). 

In any case the finished boomerang should 
be light, smoothly finished, flat on one side 
and rounded on the other and should not be 
less than ten or twelve inches long on each 
side. The exact weight, width and curve 
must be determined by experiment. Con- 
stant practice is required in order to throw 
a boomerang exactly the same way every 
time, but with practice wonderful skill may 
be acquired. Recently I saw a juggler on 
the stage of a theatre, who threw over a 
dozen boomerangs out over the heads of the 
audience, and, although every one circled 
about in a different manner, each returned to 
the thrower, who caught them in his hands. 
At one time four of the odd instruments were 
in the air at once. These were all the 
angular two-piece affairs shown in Figs. D, 
E and F. Do not attempt such " stunts " 



136 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 

until you are thoroughly master of your 
boomerangs, however; even a light wooden 
boomerang can inflict serious injuries if it 
strikes a person on the head or face. 

Spears and Throwing -Sticks 

Another peculiar implement of the chase 
and of warfare, which is used by the Aus- 
tralians and many other savages, is the spear 
and throwing-stick. Although an ordinary 
throwing spear or javelin is a powerful and 
deadly weapon in the hands of an expert, yet 
its range is limited and tremendous muscular 
power is required to throw it with sufficient 
force to be effective. By the use of the 
ingenious throwing-stick, the spear or javelin 
may be cast two or three times as far and 
with less effort than by the unaided arm. 
The throwing-stick consists of a piece of 
wood, shaped as shown in Fig. 19. The 
small, narrow end is the handle, the spear 
rests upon the broad flattened centre and the 
little hook at the other end presses against the 
end of the spear haft. The stick and spear are 
held as shown in Fig. 20, and by bringing 
the stick violently forward and releasing the 
spear at the same instant the stick acts as a 
lever or an extension of the thrower's arm 



SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 137 

exactly as the springy stick thrust into a 
green apple will enable the boy to throw 
the fruit much farther than it is possible to 
do by hand. 

Throwing-sticks may be constructed of any 
fairly hard, tough wood, and the hook at the 
end may be carved from the wood or may be 
made of metal, bone or wood, and lashed in 
place. Some of the best throwing-sticks I 
have ever used or seen were made from a nat- 
ural branch, with a side branch trimmed close, 
to form the hook. Care should be taken not 
to have the hook sharp enough to catch on 
the end of the spear. It should be quite 
broad, blunt and merely deep enough to hold 
the spear in position until it is actually cast. 
At first you will find there is a tendency to 
throw the spear downward, but with a little 
practice you can throw it as straight and 
much more accurately than with the unaided 
hand. 

The spear itself should be from six to ten 
feet in length with a light, straight haft and 
a head heavy enough to prevent it from flying 
wild. A haft of straight cane or bamboo 
will answer, but straight-grained spruce is 
far better. The head may be of brass, iron, 
stone or even hard wood, and it should be 
lashed in place and the spear, for some dis- 



138 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 

tance below it, should be wound with linen 
thread or fine wire to prevent the haft 
splitting from the force of the stroke. It 
is also a good plan to wind the other end of 
the haft for a few inches as well. 



CHAPTER VII 

TRAPS AND TRAPPING 

Every outdoors boy, who goes into the 
woods, should have some knowledge of trap- 
ping. To be able to trap the wary, valuable, 
fur-bearing animals, for their hides, is an art 
in itself and requires a great deal of skill, 
practice and knowledge. To trap common 
creatures for food or skins is quite a differ- 
ent matter and requires comparatively little 
skill. 

Trapping at its best is somewhat cruel, and 
a great many forms of traps cause the victims 
the utmost torture. For that reason no one 
should trap wild animals unless it is neces- 
sary, or of such great importance, as to more 
than offset any suffering caused the animals. 
If you require food, skins, furs, or animals 
are a pest or a nuisance, it is all right to 
trap or kill them; but in any and every 
case you should use traps which cause as 
little suffering as possible and should use 
every effort and care to prevent needless 
pain. 

Many of the fur-bearing creatures are so 

139 



140 TRAPS AND TRAPPING 

destructive to poultry, game and other ani- 
mals and birds that they may be classed as 
pests and may be killed and trapped without 
compunction. Weasels, ermine, foxes, mink, 
and in some places badgers and skunks, as 
well as coyotes, belong in this class. More- 
over the furs of these creatures are valuable 
and useful and I can see no objection to 
boys trapping them, provided the traps used 
are merciful and are visited regularly. In 
many places rabbits, hares, gophers, squirrels, 
muskrats and similar small animals are very 
abundant and are a serious menace to crops. 
Such creatures may be trapped, their skins 
used for various purposes and the cultivated 
things benefited at the same time. Nearly 
all these small, common animals are good to 
eat and the boy camper need not hesitate to 
eke out his larder by trapping, if he does not 
trap during the breeding season when the 
animals have young that would be left to 
starve if their parents were destroyed. 

There are a great many kinds of traps in 
use, some of which catch the animals alive, 
while others kill them outright. The latter 
are the most merciful and are usually the 
surest. Such traps are known as " deadfalls " 
and " snares," and while there is an almost 
unlimited variety of each, a knowledge of a 



TRAPS AND TRAPPING 141 

few kinds will prove sufficient for ordinary 
purposes. 

Snares 

Snares consist of slipnooses of wire, cord, 
horsehair or other material arranged to catch 
the feet or neck of the victim. They are 
most useful in catching birds, especially such 
species as quail, grouse, partridge, etc., but 
they may also be used in capturing rabbits, 
hares, squirrels or various other small ani- 
mals. 

The simplest of all snares consist simply 
of a noose of hair, fine fish-line or wire, at- 
tached to a spring pole or swinging weight 
and set in the accustomed path or runway of 
the creature it is intended to capture. A 
small tree or sapling may be lashed to a tree 
like an old-fashioned well-sweep (Fig. i A), 
and the noose attached to the small end and 
held down by catching it under a forked 
stick, or the noose may be attached to a 
springy sapling bent down as shown in Fig. 
I B. The principal skill required in setting 
successful snares is in arranging the trigger 
and noose, so that the animal or bird will be 
sure to get caught. One very good method 
is to build a little brush or twig inclosure and 



142 TRAPS AND TRAPPING 

set the noose in an opening therein, as shown 
in Fig. 2. The bent sapling is held down 
by a strong cord attached to a trigger, which 
is merely a light cross-piece set into slight 
notches in two stakes driven into the ground. 
Bait may be placed just within the noose in 
the inclosure, and a slight pressure against 
the noose will dislodge the trigger and allow 
the sapling to spring up and swing the snared 
creature into the air. Another form of 
'' twitch-up " snare is shown at Fig. 2a, 
In this form a circle of sticks is made by 
driving short stakes in the earth, setting 
them one inch apart and forming a circle five 
or six inches in diameter. The tops of the 
stakes are notched and the noose laid evenly 
in the notches. The sapling to which the 
noose is attached is held down by a cord fas- 
tened to a simple trigger. A reversed " Figure 
Four " is excellent for the purpose, and the 
long end is baited and projects within the 
circle of sticks. Another adaptation of this 
trap is when the noose is set in an opening 
in the side of an inclosure. 

Partridges and other ground-loving birds 
may often be snared by means of nooses 
caught into little arched doorways in a brush 
fence as shown in Fig. 3. Other birds may 
be snared by setting a number of small horse- 



TRAPS AND TRAPPING 143 

hair nooses attached to a central line, as 
shown in Fig. 4, and scattering grain, crumbs 
or other bait about over the snares. Still 
another form of bird-snare is illustrated in 
Fig. 5. This is a twitch-up and its construc- 
tion is so obvious that no explanation is 
required. 

Snares should never be used unless it is 
absolutely necessary to capture birds or ani- 
mals for food and in nearly every state they 
are forbidden by law. 

Deadfalls 

Deadfalls consist of heavy weights, usually 
a log or stone, so arranged as to fall upon 
the head or back of an animal when a trigger 
is sprung. Deadfalls are the best of all traps 
for catching weasels, skunks, marten, mink 
and other small animals, and when made 
large enough, they are often used for killing 
wolves, foxes, lynx or even bears. There 
are various methods of constructing a dead- 
fall. Two of the simplest are shown in Figs. 
6 and 6a. The first consists of a log with 
a space on the upper surface cut smooth and 
with a slight ridge as shown in section at A, 
and with another similar log, B, held directly 
above the first by the stakes C driven into 



144 TRAPS AND TRAPPING 

the ground for guides and with the trigger D, 
to which the bait is attached. In order to 
compel the animal to take the bait in such 
a manner that the log will fall upon its neck, 
a little fence or inclosure of sticks is built, as 
shown at E. Instead of using the forms of 
triggers illustrated, the old and reliable " Fig- 
ure Four " may be used. This is shown in 
Fig. 7, and the construction and operation is 
so simple and easily understood that no de- 
scription is required. The best bait for dead- 
falls, when set for carnivorous animals, is 
chicken or turkey heads, but any raw meat or 
dead birds will answer. It is not necessary 
to set deadfalls near the animals' dens or 
holes; a fence corner, stone wall or any 
partly sheltered spot will serve just as well. 
Many animals have the habit of frequenting 
definite paths or " runways," and if one of 
these is discovered a deadfall may be set in 
such a position that the animal passing along 
his accustomed pathway will be almost cer- 
tain to spring the trap. Squirrels usually 
travel along old fences or walls, and in such 
places deadfalls may be set to advantage. 
Rabbits usually travel over well-worn and 
easily recognised paths, and a deadfall set on 
one of these will usually bring results. In 
setting a deadfall it is not always necessary 



TRAPS AND TRAPPING 



145 












146 TRAPS AND TRAPPING 

to use a trigger with bait, triggers arranged 
as shown in Figs. 8a and Sb are often excel- 
lent when the trap is set on a runway, for the 
animal stepping upon the part A springs the 
trigger and causes the log to fall. Although 
a heavy log makes an excellent deadfall, yet 
stones or any other weight will serve just as 
well. In setting a deadfall be sure that the 
weight is sufficient to crush the skull or 
break the back of the victim instantly. If 
this is done there will be no pain or suffering 
caused, and for this reason a well-constructed 
deadfall is probably the most humane of all 
traps. 

Box Traps 

Among the most useful of all traps are the 
old-fashioned box traps, which catch animals 
alive and unhurt. The box trap consists of 
a box-like contrivance with the top and one 
end hinged or pivoted as shown in Fig. 9, 
and with the other end carried up to a sort of 
peak as illustrated. The trigger (Fig. 9 A) 
is passed through a hole in the high end and 
a cord passing from the pivoted top over the 
peak and to a small piece of wood shown at B, 
which is caught in a little nick in the end of 
the trap and in a notch in the end of the 



TRAPS AND TRAPPING 



147 





fio.7 




■^c^&/:ii 



148 TRAPS AND TRAPPING 

Spindle as shown at C. As long as the spindle 
is undisturbed the cover to the trap will re- 
main suspended by the cord, but with the 
slightest movement of the spindle the cover 
drops into position, thus closing the trap. 
Box traps are excellent for rabbits, squirrels 
and other small creatures, and birds are also 
frequently captured in them. For catching 
animals for pets there is nothing better. For 
squirrels, rabbits and birds the trap should 
be baited with green vegetables, corn on the 
cob, apples, or similar things attached to the 
sharpened end of the spindle. For carnivo- 
rous creatures chicken heads, raw meat or 
similar baits should be used. If the trap is 
set for mice, rats, squirrels or gnawing ani- 
mals it should be lined with tin or zinc around 
the edges, to prevent the captives from gnaw- 
ing out. 

Another style of box trap is illustrated in 
Fig. lo. This trap has a hinged end and 
cover exactly as in the last, but instead of the 
high peak at the other end and the spindle 
and trigger, this form of trap has the spindle 
passed through the top and a long piece of 
wood or a stick for a trigger. The manner 
of adjusting and setting this trap is plainly 
shown in the diagrams and an explanation is 
not necessary. 



TRAPS AND TRAPPING 149 

This is really a simpler trap than the one 
just described and it has one advantage, inas- 
much as the rear end may be covered with 
v^ire netting, thus enabling you to see the 
captured animal without opening the trap 
itself. Sometimes a box trap is constructed 
with a sliding door instead of the hinged 
door. This method of construction has one 
great merit; the captured animal cannot lift 
the door and escape and you can open the 
door slightly without any danger of the crea- 
ture escaping through the top, which often 
occurs when the pivoted door trap is used. 
A box trap may also be modified to operate as 
a deadfall. This is done by making the slid- 
ing door operate in a groove or guide a few 
inches from the end of the spindle, and by 
weighting it with some heavy object, such as 
a large stone, a piece of old iron, a piece of 
lead or even a heavy log resting upon it, and 
kept in position by means of guides. Such 
an arrangement is shown in Fig. ii. 

Coop Traps 

The coop trap or " hen-coop trap " is a 
splendid form of trap for capturing live birds, 
such as quail, pigeon, grouse, etc. It will also 
do well for small animals and is very easily 



150 TRAPS AND TRAPPING 

constructed from materials found in the 
woods. 

The trap consists of a coop or box held 
tilted up by some form of trigger. The 
common figure-four trigger or the two- 
spindle triggers described under Deadfalls 
will serve very well for coop traps, but for 
birds the form shown in Fig. 12 is preferable. 
This trigger consists of two forked sticks (A 
B), and a piece of pliable stick or withe (C). 
The withe is bent into a half-circle a little 
smaller than the diameter of the coop and the 
two ends are kept from springing apart by 
two short sticks driven into the ground just 
inside the rear end of the coop as shown at 
D D. One of the forked sticks, — the long- 
est, — is then placed upright outside of the 
withe and with the fork uppermost. The 
second and shorter stick is then placed in the 
position illustrated with one end of the fork 
resting in the fork A and with the tip 
supporting the coop and with the lower end 
inside the bent withe. The pressure of the 
coop upon the fork forces the lower end 
against the bent withe and the coop cannot 
fall. As soon as a bird alights upon the withe 
the latter slides down and releases the forked 
trigger and the coop drops over the bird. 

The coop may be built of rough sticks tied 



TRAPS AND TRAPPING 



151 




U^i/iiV ij/// /\ (/*' ' " Wt/u^ 



Fig. 11 



Ci^T^rrc—rl,' -^ 




Fio. 13 




Fio. 16 



152 TRAPS AND TRAPPING 

together with bark, grass withes or string, 
or it may be constructed of sticks or lathes 
nailed together. The bait for birds may be 
dried corn, grain, peas, etc., and for animals, 
nuts, fruit, corn or meat, according to the 
habit of the creature you wish to capture. 
If a figure-four or spindle trigger is used 
the bait should be fastened to the trigger in- 
side of the coop, but if the forked stick and 
withe arrangement is used the bait may be 
simply scattered on the ground within. It is 
usually a good plan to scatter some bait out- 
side to attract the birds or animals. When 
this trap is set for animals it is usually neces- 
sary to weight the coop with stones or similar 
things to prevent the captive from lifting it 
up. Moreover a layer of fine netting should 
be set on the ground under the coop, or the 
trap should be set on a rock, to prevent the 
captive from digging out. 

Steel Traps 

These are the most widely used and the 
most cruel of all traps, and unless you de- 
pend upon trapping for a living or are anxious 
to capture some obnoxious or dangerous crea- 
ture, you should never use them. Steel traps 
are baited with something which is a favourite 



TRAPS AND TRAPPING 153 

food of the creature it is designed to catch, 
and in order to succeed well with this class 
of traps you must study the habits of the 
animals and must know just how and where 
to place the trap for each particular species 
of animal. Nearly all wild animals are very 
suspicious of steel traps, and if they are set 
openly, the animals will seldom approach 
them. It is usually necessary to cover the 
traps with sand, earth or leaves, and they 
should be smoked or rubbed with grease to 
destroy any human scent. An excellent 
method is to wash the traps in weak lye and 
water and afterwards rub them with chicken 
or goose fat. After the traps are washed 
you should never touch them with your bare 
hands before setting them, but should wear 
gloves of some sort. There is nothing that 
will create greater suspicion in a wild animal 
than the smell of a human being. 

Oftentimes ashes or burnt wood, or chicken 
or rabbit manure, or even horse or cow 
manure, scattered about the trap will prove 
valuable in destroying human scent, and in 
addition will attract many animals. Do not 
forget that the chain to the trap must be just 
as carefully treated and just as well concealed 
as the trap itself. 

When setting traps for mink, muskrats or 



154 TRAPS AND TRAPPING 

water animals of any sort, an excellent plan 
is to attach the chain to a stout wire, one end 
of the wire being fastened to a stake driven 
in the bottom of the pond or stream or to a 
heavy rock and the other end being fastened 
to some higher spot on shore. The struggles 
of the captured animal will cause the chain to 
run or slide down the wire and the creature 
will be drowned. 

Meat, chicken or turkey heads, offal, small 
animals or birds and similar things are all 
good bait, but these should never be placed 
on the trap itself, but should be suspended a 
short distance above it so that the animal will 
step upon the trap in endeavouring to reach 
the bait. 

Few wild animals will step upon a dead or 
brittle twig or branch, and trappers frequently 
take advantage of this trait and place dry 
twigs about the trap so that any animal, in 
attempting to avoid the twigs, will step on 
the trap. 

Traps set for mink, otter, muskrat, etc., are 
usually placed on a stone or log close to 
water or even in the water or under water 
near the shore. If a trap is set in shallow 
water, with a chicken or fish head hung above 
it, mink and otter may often be captured, 
when all other methods fail. 



TRAPS AND TRAPPING 155 

In most places it is necessary to make a 
trail or " scent " to lure animals to the traps. 
This is done by fastening a piece of bloody 
meat or a freshly-cut chicken's head to a stick 
and smearing it over with fish oil, oil of anise 
or some similar strong oil, and dragging it 
over the ground in several directions leading 
to the trap. The passing animals v^ill smell 
this odour and v^ill usually follow it to the 
trap and bait. 

Oftentimes a trap is set carefully hidden on 
a path or runway frequented by animals and 
the trapper trusts to passing creatures step- 
ping upon the trap and uses no bait whatever. 

Sometimes animals may be induced to step 
upon a trap by building a little pen or in- 
closure, like that described for the deadfall, 
and placing the bait within, with the steel 
trap concealed at the entrance. 

In setting steel traps for large animals the 
traps should never be chained to a solid 
object; in that case the captured animal will 
often break loose by pulling his leg out of 
the trap or by biting or chewing it off. To 
prevent this, the chain should be attached to 
a heavy log or stick known as a " drag." 
This will prevent the captive from travelling 
far or rapidly and will leave a trail which 
the trapper may easily follow. 



156 TRAPS AND TRAPPING 

Muskrat Traps 

These well-known and common creatures 
are fairly easy to trap. They are valuable 
for their furs, they are good to eat, and in 
many places they are serious pests, so the 
boy trapper need have no compunction about 
trapping them, provided he does so in a 
merciful manner. 

Steel traps are the commonest form used 
for catching these creatures, but they are not 
nearly as satisfactory and are far more cruel 
than many other forms of easily-made traps. 
One of the most deadly forms of muskrat 
traps is merely a barrel half filled with water 
and floated by a frame or platform of boards 
as shown in Fig. 13. The bait of fruit, vege- 
tables, etc., is placed upon the boards and 
barrel with some more bait scattered upon 
bits of board floating inside the barrel. The 
rats jump from the boards into the barrel 
and cannot escape. Another form of trap is 
shown in Fig. 14. To make this trap, con- 
struct an oblong four-sided box, eight inches 
square and from four to eight feet long, using 
one-inch boards. Bend some stiff wire into 
the shape shown at A, and across this weave 
some stiff wire — hay-bale wire is good, — as 
shown at B. Place two of these doors on the 



TRAPS AND TRAPPING 157 

box, one at each end, pivoting them so they 
swing easily by passing a wire through the 
eyes as shown at C, and placing the doors so 
that they slant slightly towards the centre of 
the box as shown at D, with the lower edges 
resting against the bottom of the box. In 
this position the doors can swing inward, but 
not outward. To set the trap, sink it with 
stones or other weights, in a stream or pond, 
and be sure that it is completely under water 
so that the captured muskrats will drown. 
Place bait, consisting of fruit, green vege- 
tables, etc., in the trap. The muskrats will 
dive down and swim into the trap to secure 
the bait, but they cannot get out and will 
soon drown. Sometimes a dozen or more 
rats are captured in a trap of this sort in a 
single night. 

Turtk Traps 

In nearly every pond, lake or stream, tur- 
tles are found, and, although they are very 
common and may be seen sunning themselves 
on rocks and logs, they are by no means easy 
to catch. Turtles are invariably interesting 
to boys; and many a boy spending his vaca- 
tion in the country has longed to capture 
some of the turtles that he sees on the old 



158 TRAPS AND TRAPPING 

stumps in the mill pond, but which dive into 
the water long before one can come within 
reach of them. 

Moreover turtles are nearly all good to eat 
and boy campers will find that snapping tur- 
tles, terrapin and even the ordinary " mud 
turtles " are not to be despised as an addi- 
tion to camp menus. 

Like a great many other things it is easy 
to catch turtles if you know how, and with 
a very simple sort of trap you may catch all 
of these creatures that you wish, either for 
food or for pets. The best turtle trap, which 
is shown in Fig. 15, consists merely of a box 
with perforated sides and with a cover made 
in one or two pivoted sections (A A), which 
are arranged to tip down, but are prevented 
from tipping up by the cleats (B B), and are 
held in position by the weights (C C). When 
this trap is weighted and placed in the water, 
with the top an inch or so above the surface, 
and a turtle crawls upon it, his weight tips 
the pivoted door down and Mr. Turtle slides 
into the box. The weights (C C) then pull 
the door back into position and the trap is 
thus automatically set, ready for the next 
visitor. The only care is to get the weights 
(C C) just heavy enough to swing the doors 
into position, for if they are too heavy the 



TRAPS AND TRAPPING 159 

weight of the turtle will not spring the trap 
and he will enjoy a nice place to sun him- 
self at your expense. The trap should be set 
in some spot where turtles are common and 
are in the habit of sunning themselves. No 
bait is required for this trap, as the turtles 
are attracted to it merely as a convenient 
spot to crawl out on to enjoy the sunshine. 
I have sometimes caught over fifty turtles of 
all kinds and sizes in a single day with one of 
these traps. In addition to turtles this trap 
often catches large frogs. 

Another form of turtle trap is shown in 
Fig. i6. This operates much in the same 
manner as the muskrat trap already de- 
scribed. It consists of a perforated box, 
fitted with a door at one or both ends, so ar- 
ranged that the door swings in, but not out. 
There should be a space of half an inch or 
so beneath the doors and meat, dead fish or 
similar bait should be placed in the box, 
which should then be weighted and sunk be- 
neath the water. The turtles, in attempting 
to reach the bait, will push in the doors and 
will be unable to get out again. A piece of 
lead, iron or some similar weight should be 
fastened to the doors at the lower edge in 
order to prevent them from floating open. 
This is an excellent trap for snapping turtles, 



160 TRAPS AND TRAPPING 

terrapin, etc., but is not as satisfactory for 
ordinary turtles as the one first described. 
Moreover you must visit and examine this 
kind of trap at frequent intervals for the 
turtles, unable to reach the air, will drov^n, 
v^hereas v^ith the former trap they will re- 
main alive for days as the trap is not com- 
pletely submerged. 

Sometimes a trap, designed and set for one 
creature, will accidentally catch some very 
different animal, and it is always wise to 
look into a trap with caution. It is an un- 
welcome surprise to find a lively and angry 
skunk in a box trap set for rabbits, and in 
turtle traps you will often find muskrats, 
mink or water snakes. 



CHAPTER VIII 

SKINNING ANIMALS AND TANNING HIDES 

There is scarcely any animal whose skin or 
hide is not useful or valuable for some pur- 
pose. In the winter the hair or fur of all 
animals is thicker, softer and warmer than in 
the summer, and it is at that season that all 
the fur-bearing animals are killed or captured 
for their pelts. If you wish hides with the 
hair or fur on, you should preserve the winter 
skins, but the creatures trapped or killed at 
other seasons for food, or because they are 
pests, will furnish skins which may be tanned 
and used for leather for a variety of pur- 
poses. 

Skins to be sold for furs are merely dried, 
for the manufacturers have their own 
methods of tanning or dressing. For your 
own use, however, you may dress and tan 
the fur-bearing skins so they are as soft, pli- 
able and tough as those tanned by profes- 
sionals. A hat, gloves or other fur garments 
made from the skins of the animals caught 
or killed by yourself will seem much nicer 
than those bought ready-made, and you will 

161 



162 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 

take pride in knowing that you tanned the 
skins and obtained the hides by your own 
skill and knowledge. 

The skins of animals captured in warm 
weather may be tanned with the hair off, 
and you will be surprised to find what 
good leather some of these will make, and 
what a variety of uses you will find for 
them. 

Many small animals, such as rabbits and 
hares, have such thin, papery skins that they 
are worthless for leather, but all the weasel 
family, the cat family, woodchucks, squirrels 
and muskrats have good, thick, tough hides 
that make excellent leather. For pouches, 
bags, gloves and many other purposes these 
small skins will serve very well, but for leg- 
gins, moccasins or similar things, larger and 
heavier skins are required. Deer have the 
best of all skins for such uses, but calf-skin, 
sheep-skin or goat-skin may be tanned soft 
and pliable and will make excellent moccasins, 
etc. 

The first step in preparing a skin for tan- 
ning is to skin the creature properly. If you 
are saving the hides to sell as furs they should 
be '' cased," that is, the animal should be 
skinned by making a slit across the belly from 
the inside of one hind foot to the inside of the 



SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES l63 

Other, and drawing the animal's carcass out 
through this slit. 

In doing this the skin is turned inside out. 
When removed from the body the hide is 
slipped over a piece of board v^hittled in a 
wedge shape, and is dried in a shady spot. 
For your own use, however, the skins may be 
cut along the abdomen and taken off flat, 
using great care not to cut or tear the skin. 

The skins may be tanned at once, or they 
may be dried and saved until you have a num- 
ber and then all may be tanned and dressed 
at one time. This is the best method with 
small skins, but if you have a large skin, such 
as that of a deer, goat, calf or cow, it is 
better to tan it at once. 



Tanning Skins with the Hair On 

The main secret in tanning skins so they 
will be soft and pliable is to use plenty of 
'' elbow grease." Unless the skins are worked, 
rolled, rubbed and pounded they will not be 
soft, and unless you are prepared to use 
plenty of time and exercise in finishing them 
you need not expect to get soft, pliable 
skins. 

There are various methods of tanning and 
nearly every professional tanner has methods 



164 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 

and formulae of his own, and many of these 
are kept as trade secrets. Many of the best 
methods of tanning are very simple, and the 
following- will be found very satisfactory. 

As soon as the skin is removed from the 
animal, place it over a smooth, rounded sur- 
face, such as a log or tree trunk, and scrape 
off all adhering bits of meat, fat, etc. In 
doing this use a blunt knife or scraper and 
take great care not to cut or tear the skin. 
Next wash the hide thoroughly in strong 
soap-suds, or in a weak solution of washing 
soda, until the grease and dirt are all removed. 
Hang up the skin to drain, and when half dry, 
place it in a tanning liquor composed of the 
following: 

I lb. salt; J4 lb. alum; 2 oz. of saltpetre 
and 2 oz. of sulphuric acid to each gallon of 
water. 

Soak the skin in this liquid and turn it 
each day for from two to ten days, according 
to the size of the skin. After the first day 
or two, take out the skin, drain it and scrape 
off all remaining flesh, fat and sinews. While 
doing this note if there are any dark, bluish 
spots on the skin, and if so, be sure and have 
these come in contact with the liquor when 
the hide is again placed in the tanning mix- 
ture, as such spots indicate unequal tanning 



SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 165 

and show that the area where they occur did 
not come in contact with the tan. 

Replace the skin in the liquor and let it 
soak (turning and sousing it about fre- 
quently) until there is no sign of slipperiness 
or jelly-like consistency to the skin. Wash 
the skin thoroughly in fresh water, drain and 
scrape it until smooth and clean and nearly 
dry. 

Give the skin-side a coat of neatsfoot oil 
and lay it away in damp sawdust. When 
the oil has thoroughly soaked in, apply a 
coating of soft-soap, roll the skin tightly and 
place it again in sawdust. When again dry 
unroll the skin and work it back and forth 
over a beam and beat and pound it until 
thoroughly soft and pliable. 

Another process which produces a water- 
proof leather is to soak in the solution above 
described and then place the skin in a 5- to 10- 
per cent, solution of either sulphate of chro- 
mium, sulphate of aluminum or sulphate of 
copper, after which the scraping, drying and 
softening are accomplished as described. 

Extract of sumach, tannic acid, solution of 
oak bark or galls and various other com- 
pounds are used in place of the chemicals, 
but when these vegetable compounds are used 
the skin will turn brownish. If an extra fine 



166 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 

finish is desired the skins may be smoked 
over a fire of green birch or other wood, but 
care should be taken not to allow the hides to 
become heated or burned. The smoking gives 
the skins a pungent odour like Indian-tanned 
buckskin, and makes them softer and more 
pliable, besides rendering them more or less 
moth-proof. 

Tanning Skins Without the Hair 

If you wish to tan skins for purposes where 
the fur or hair is objectionable, you may 
easily remove the hair by soaking them in 
water in which some wood ashes have been 
dissolved. The hides should remain in this 
solution until the hair rubs off readily, but if 
left too long the skins themselves will be in- 
jured. Another method is to bury the skins 
in mud for a few days, being careful to have 
the mud touch every portion of the hide. In 
either method, as soon as the hair comes 
away readily the skins should be washed in 
fresh water and then laid hair-side up over 
a log or other rounded object. By going- 
over the skin with a piece of board with nar- 
row edge or with the back of a large knife, 
the hair can be all rubbed and scraped off 
after which the skin should be again washed 



SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 167 

and tanned exactly as described for skins with 
the hair on. 

After you have tanned some nice hides you 
will wish to make some use of them and one 
of the best uses to which you can put well- 
tanned strong skins is to make some moc- 
casins. 

How to Make Moccasins 

Moccasins are the best of all footwear for 
the woods, for they are soft, comfortable and 
almost silent. Moreover they will not slip on 
smooth rocks or logs and will stand an enor- 
mous amount of hard wear. Do not be de- 
luded into thinking that ordinary moccasins 
are waterproof, however. Moccasins can be 
made waterproof, but they must be made of 
specially-tanned leather and must be sewed 
and fitted with great care to withstand water 
satisfactorily. The ordinary Indian moccasin 
is not supposed to be waterproof, but if moc- 
casins are wet they can be readily dried and 
are as good as ever, and they are so easily 
made and so cheap that a boy camper should 
always have several pairs on hand so that if 
one pair gets wet another can be worn until 
the first are thoroughly dried. 

Every different tribe of Indians has a par- 



168 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 

ticular form of moccasins and an Indian or a 
skilled woodsman can tell the tribe to which 
an Indian belongs merely by his moccasins, 
or even by their imprint in many cases. Our 
Eastern Indians used moccasins with soft 
soles made in one piece with the uppers, but 
many of the Western tribes used moccasins 
with heavy soles sewed to the uppers. In 
some cases the soles were of thick, flexible 
leather while in others the soles were made 
from stiff, hard rawhide. These Western 
moccasins are not nearly as easy to make 
nor as comfortable as the Eastern forms, the 
commonest of which is that used by the 
Algonquins and with minor variations by 
the majority of Eastern Indians. 

The Algonquin Moccasin (Figs. 1-5) 

From soft, tough leather or buckskin, cut 
two pieces shaped as in i, and two others 
of the form shown in 2. The size of these 
pieces must be gauged by the size of your 
feet, or by a last of the size shoe that you 
wear. The length from A to B should be 
one-third longer than the sole of your foot, 
while the width from C to D should be the 
same as the circumference of your foot around 
the instep and sole. In other words if you 



SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 169 

stand on the piece of leather the sides C and 
D should just meet over your instep. The 
flaps E and F may be as long or as short as 
you please, depending upon whether you 
desire a low or high moccasin. Having cut 
out the four pieces as directed, next cut some 
long straight pieces or strings from the same 
leather. These may be cut from a very small 
piece of leather by cutting around and around 
a circle in spiral form as shown in diagram 
12. Commencing at the point marked G, in 
2 and 3, make holes with an awl in the pieces 
2 and 3, and sew the pieces together with a 
strip of the leather, tough shoe-thread or 
sinew. Make each stitch short on^ the tongue 
2, and long in the edge of the piece 3, and 
thus gather the edges of the moccasin in 
tight, neat tucks as indicated in the diagrams 
4 and 5. Some little practice will be required 
before you learn just how large to make the 
stitches in order to have the two sides of the 
moccasin and the edges of the tongue come 
out even; but if you fail at first, pull out the 
stitches and try again. If the leather is thick 
and stiff it will prove a help to wet the edges 
of the moccasin, and if this is done and the 
tongue remains dry, the lower part will 
pucker readily without puckering the tongue. 
If you can secure a wooden shoe-last of the 



170 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 

right size, it will help you a great deal in 
making the moccasins, for they can be fitted 
tightly over the last and will be much neater 
and more workmanlike when completed. 
When the tongue is sewed onto the moc- 
casin satisfactorily, cut two little slits in the 
back of the sole, as shown at H H, and then 
sew up the back as illustrated at 5, sewing- 
over and over through both sides until the 
little tab H is reached. This should be sewed 
down closely and neatly as shown in the 
illustration. Tie a string of leather at the 
bottom of each side of the uppers, or pass a 
string through a hole in each edge and around 
the back and your moccasins are finished. 

The Seminole Moccasin (Figs. 6-12) 

The Seminole Indians of Florida use moc- 
casins that are very distinct in appearance 
and construction from those of other tribes. 
They are splendid moccasins and made of a 
single piece, and a Seminole can make a 
pair in a few minutes with only a knife for 
tools. 

To make the Seminole moccasin, illustrated 
in Figs. 6-12, cut two pieces shaped as in 7 
and two strings with a large end on each like 
8. The size of the pieces 7 is determined in 



SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 171 

the same manner as for the Algonquin moc- 
casin, except that the width should be a little 
greater than the distance around your foot. 
Make a hole at the toe end of 7, as shown at 
A, and thread the piece 8 through this from 




the under side; the large end B will stop it 
from pulling clear through. Then with this 
thong, sew over and under as illustrated, pull- 
ing the stitches tight each time until neat 
puckers are made, but gradually decreasing 
the length of the stitches and making the 



172 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 

tucks looser and looser as you work up to- 
wards the instep. By wetting the edges near 
the toe and leaving the portion near the in- 
step dry, this may be easily accomplished. 
When the two sides are thus gathered to- 
gether to the side-flaps, knot the thong so 
it cannot slip back and leave the long end 
loose as a tie-string to wrap about the leg. 
Sew up the heel and back as in the Algon- 
quin moccasin, but leave a loose end of thong 
projecting at the top as shown at lo. When 
the string C is wrapped around the leg it is 
tied to this thong D, and holds the flaps 
smoothly in place. After you have learned 
either or both of these moccasins you may 
wish to try your hand at making one of the 
Western Indian forms. The easiest of these 
is the style worn by the Sioux. 

Sioux Moccasins (Fig. 13) 

For these moccasins you must have some 
soft, thin, tough leather or buckskin, as well 
as some very heavy, soft hide, such as elk- 
skin or soft-tanned horse or cow hide, or if 
you prefer, some heavy rawhide. Place your 
foot upon a piece of the heavy leather and 
mark around it and cut it out to the approxi- 
mate form shown in A. Using this as a pat- 



SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 173 

tern, cut another similar piece, but be sure 
and have the two pieces right and left by 
turning the first piece upside down when you 
use it for a pattern in cutting the second. 
These will be the soles of the moccasins, and 
the lower side should be the hair side of the 
skin. Next spread out the thin leather and 
with a string, or rule, measure the length of 
the sole, and, adding one inch to this mark, the 
length on the thin leather. Now measure from 
one side to the other of your foot across the 
instep and mark this length at one end of the 
first measurement and at right angles to it, as 
shown at B. Draw a curved outline as indi- 
cated by the dotted line in diagram B, from 
one end of the instep measurement around 
the lengthwise measurement and back to the 
other end of the instep line. Cut out around 
this line, place the piece upside down on the 
remaining leather and cut out another piece 
of the same size. In each of these pieces 
make a cut as indicated by C C, and another 
as shown by D D, and make two holes close 
together at E E. These will be the uppers 
of your moccasins and must be sewn to the 
soles by stitching through as illustrated at 
F, taking care that all the stitches pass diag- 
onally through the edge of the sole, for if 
they go straight through they will soon wear 



174 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 

off and the moccasins will come apart. Com- 
mence the stitching at the rear, or heel, of 
the sole and at one of the rear corners of the 
upper as shown at G, and work around to the 
other end. When this is done, sew up the 
back seam neatly and sew a tongue of soft 
leather in position as shown at H. If the 
sole is of rawhide, or very heavy leather, you 
will find that it will be much easier to sew 
it if it is soaked for a few hours in warm 
water until thoroughly soft. You may have 
some trouble at first in making neat stitches 
and keeping the uppers from puckering, but 
as the moccasin may be turned inside out 
until the heel-seam is sewn up you will be 
able to work at it quite readily. It may seem 
easier to sew the tongue in place before sew- 
ing the uppers to the soles, but I have always 
found that the tongue is a nuisance and in 
the way while the uppers are being stitched 
on. 

When all the sewing is done, thread a soft 
leather thong about eighteen inches long 
through the holes for a tie-string and the 
moccasins will be complete. 

Sioux moccasins are low, slipper-like affairs, 
and if high moccasins of this style are desired, 
leg-pieces must be sewn onto the uppers after 
the moccasins are completed. 



SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 175 

Even if you do not tan skin« yourself you 
will find it economical to make moccasins for 
use in the woods and in camp. Any kind of 
soft, pliable leather will serve for making 
moccasins, but in order to wear well the 
leather must be tough. Indian-tanned buck- 
skin, elk-skin, soft-tanned horsehide and sim- 
ilar leathers are excellent and the leather 
known as " Chrome calf " is probably the best 
of all. 



CHAPTER IX 

PERMANENT CAMPS 

For a temporary or one-night camp, there 
is nothing handier and more satisfactory than 
the Lean-to, already described, but for camps 
to be used for several days or weeks, some- 
thing more substantial is usually required. 

A lean-to may be constructed so strongly 
and well that it is practically waterproof, and 
will stand the storms and weather of several 
seasons. If built on a stout frame and con- 
structed of birch bark, held in place with 
lashed poles, or of slabs of hemlock bark, a 
lean-to may be made tight and warm enough 
for even mid-winter use. 

Tents are all very well for summer camp- 
ing, and if near a town or city or where the 
camp-site may be reached by wagon, canoe 
or other conveyance, tents will be found of 
great service. They are cumbersome to 
carry, however, and the light-weight silk tents 
are too easily injured for rough work and 
boys' use. Moreover tents are quite expen- 
sive and it never seems like real '' camping 
out " to carry along a tent and set it up. 

176 



PERMANENT CAMPS 177 

There are many forms of tents and a smart 
boy or boys can easily make a tent during 
spare hours. The easiest of all tents to make 
and the one which is the easiest to set up and 
carry about is the Indian wigwam or '' tepee." 
Moreover the tepee always seems in harmony 
with the woods and fields, and gives a feeling 
of real '' wild life " to its occupants, that is 
quite lacking when the civilised wall or " A " 
tents are used. 

How to Make an Indian Tepee 

The size of the tepee to be used depends 
very largely upon the number of boys who 
are to occupy it, as well as upon the distance 
it has to be carried. A tepee 14 feet high 
and with a floor space 14 feet in diameter is 
large enough for three or four boys. To 
make a tepee of this size you will require 
canvas or cotton drill ten yards long and five 
yards wide and this will have to be made up 
by sewing several breadths together. In sew- 
ing the breadths let each seam lap slightly 
and sew both edges as shown in Fig. i A. 
When the piece of cloth is ready, stretch 
it out flat on a floor or on a smooth piece of 
ground and mark the exact centre of one of 
the long edges as at B. Drive a stout nail 
at this point and tie a strong piece of twine 



178 PERMANENT CAMPS 

loosely around this nail and make a loop in 
the other end of the cord, which should be 
15 feet in length. Slip a piece of coloured 
chalk, a piece of charcoal or a soft lead pencil 
through the loop and with the string and 
pencil draw a half-circle on the cloth as shown 
at C D. Mark two V-shaped places at E E, 
each ten inches deep and ten inches wide. 
Then mark off seven feet eight inches on 
each side from C to F, and from D to G; 
divide each of these spaces into eight equal 
parts of ii>4 inches each. On each of these 
marks draw two small circles or place two 
dots two inches from the edge and two inches 
apart, as shown at H H. Along the curved 
edge from C to D mark off twenty-five spaces 
each two feet apart. From the corners of 
the square canvas outside of the circle or 
from another piece, cut two pieces the shape 
shown in J J, each seven feet on the long 
side, six and one-half feet on the shorter side 
and with the ends three and one-half and one 
and one-half feet wide. In the corners of 
these pieces at K K, sew small triangular 
pieces and fasten pieces of light, strong rope 
(L L). Now cut out around the half-circle 
from C to D, cut out the triangular pieces 
E E, and your tepee will be ready to sew and 
finish. 



PERMANENT CAMPS 



179 




180 PERMANENT CAMPS 

The edges C to F and D to G should be 
hemmed, and the edge from C to D should 
have light rope hemmed in the edge with a 
loop at each of the marks I I, about an inch 
and a half in diameter as shown at M. The 
two pieces J J should then be sewn in place as 
illustrated and a piece of stout line should 
be attached to the point B. The edges 
of the " smoke-flaps " J, and the edges of the 
cuts E E, should also be neatly turned over 
and hemmed. At each of the marks I I, holes 
should be punched in the cloth and " button- 
hole stitched/' and your tepee will be ready 
to set up. 

For erecting the wigwam you will require 
ten straight, strong poles, about sixteen feet 
long, and two lighter poles twenty feet in 
length and a piece of light rope about twenty- 
five feet long. You will also require eight 
lacing-pins of hard wood, each about eight 
inches in length by M inch square, and twenty- 
flve tent pegs one foot long and one inch 
square. To erect the tepee, mark off a circle 
on the ground fourteen feet in diameter, and 
erect three poles (with their tops tied to- 
gether by the long rope) in the form of a tri- 
pod (Fig. 2a). Against these lay six more 
poles at equal distances apart and fasten all 
together by winding a few turns of the rope 



PERMANENT CAMPS 181 

about them (Fig. 2b). Drive a stake into 
the ground near the centre of the floor and tie 
the end of the rope firmly to this as shown. 
Now tie the short rope shown in Fig. i, at B, 
to the end of the tenth pole and lift the tepee 
cover into position as shown at Fig. 2c, 
letting the tenth pole lean against those in 
place and pulling the bottom around and 
pegging it in place with the tent pegs driven 
into the ground through the loops provided 
for the purpose. The front edges should 
then be lapped over and through each of the 
holes I I a lacing-peg should be thrust as 
shown in Fig. 2/. The two long, light poles 
should then be inserted in the little pockets 
in the smoke-flaps (K K), and the flaps swung 
into position quartering the wind as indi- 
cated at Fig. 2d. The door of the tent may- 
be closed by merely lapping the two sides 
across, but it is better to provide a regular 
door (Fig. 2e). This may be made of can- 
vas or other material sewed onto a frame 
and hung to a lacing-pin as shown at Fig. 2g, 
or it may be simply a loose piece or flap of 
canvas sewed to one of the edges of the open- 
ing and fastened shut by strings of lacing- 
pins. Indians, as a rule, erect their wigwams 
facing the east. In this way they receive the 
morning sun and light and are protected 



182 PERMANENT CAMPS 

from the west winds that usually prevail. In 
bad weather, or in an easterly wind, the 
smoke-flaps are swung about by means of 
the poles until the flaps are crossed, and if 
there is difficulty in making the fire draw, 
the lower edge of the cover is slightly 
lifted. 

During the day the lower edge of the tepee 
may be raised a foot or two to allow a free 
circulation of air. As the tent pegs, lacing- 
pins and poles may be cut from standing 
trees, it is not necessary to carry them along 
when shifting camp, and the cover alone, 
rolled into a compact bundle and tied up with 
the rope, is easy to carry. The tepee may 
be left its natural colour or may be painted, 
dyed or ornamented with Indian patterns to 
suit the owner's taste. If properly made and 
erected a tepee will prove a very cozy, dry 
and comfortable dwelling-place in the woods 
and with a small fire in the centre it will 
be warm even when a winter storm rages 
without. 

Other Permanent Camps 

For a permanent home in the woods, one 
that is to be used year after year, there is 
nothing better than a log cabin. Log cabins 
are not difficult to construct, but to build one 



PERMANENT CAMPS 183 

a person must be an expert axman, and a 
great many large forest trees must be sacri- 
ficed. Our forests are being far too rapidly 
destroyed, and to cut trees for the sake of 
making a log cabin, save where absolutely 
necessary, is a waste of material not to be 
encouraged. Many other forms of camps 
may be constructed of waste material or of 
small growth, which will serve every purpose 
as well as a log cabin for boys' use. 

Wattled Huts 

In many parts of the world the natives 
live in houses or huts made of grass, reeds or 
branches, and known as " wattled " construc- 
tion. For many places wattled cabins are 
excellent as permanent camps. They are 
wind, water and storm proof, and are warm 
in winter and cool in summer if well made, 
but they will not prove as enduring as log 
cabins. For warm climates they are excel- 
lent and as they are easy to make they serve 
very well for one or two seasons in any lo- 
cality where the materials used in their con- 
struction can be obtained. 

Wattled huts may be made of withes or 
small boughs of willow or other trees or of 
bundles of grass, bunches of reeds, bulrushes. 



184 PERMANENT CAMPS 

cat-tails or any flexible material of a similar 
nature. 

In order to construct a wattled hut it is 
first necessary to build a rough framework 
of the desired size and proportions. This may 
be of logs, poles or timbers, and may be 
lashed or nailed together. In the illustration 
(Fig. 3), a framework of rough poles is 
shown. In this case no nails are used in 
the entire construction and all the materials 
used may be obtained in almost any part of 
the country. The framework, having been 
constructed, the next step is to tie poles or 
sticks from the upper poles of the framework 
to the ground frame or " sills " (Fig. ^a). 
These should be about three or four inches 
apart and spaces should be left for door and 
windows as illustrated. Next with light, 
flexible withes, strips of bark, stout rushes or 
any similar material (even benches of grass or 
straw will answer) weave the material in and 
out between the upright poles as shown at b. 
This will seem like slow work, but if you have 
an abundance of material you will find that 
it proceeds very rapidly. When the withes, 
branches or rushes come to the edge of a 
door or window, bend them around the pole 
and back under and over one or two poles, as 
at c. The roof should then be treated in 



PERMANENT CAMPS 



185 



the same way and made waterproof by laying 
sheets of bark, bunches of rushes, layers of 
evergreen boughs or other materials over the 




wattling like shingles (Fig. 3^). If the 
weaving or wattling has been done well the 
sides of the house will be quite tight and 



186 PERMANENT CAMPS 

little wind will penetrate, but it may be made 
quite waterproof and windproof by daubing 
clay or mud over it and thus filling all the 
cracks and crevices. The door may be made 
of similar construction or of canvas and the 
window may be covered with a shutter of 
wood, canvas or wattled work. 

Another method of building a house is by 
" thatching." In many parts of the world 
thatched houses are used by thousands of 
people and even in England and other Euro- 
pean countries thatched roofs are in daily use. 

Thatching 

To make thatching, bunches of straw, grass, 
rushes or leaves are used, and for temporary 
purposes evergreen boughs will serve. In 
making a thatched hut the framework should 
be constructed as in the wattled hut, but the 
light poles should be placed from end to end, 
longitudinally, instead of from top to bottom, 
perpendicularly, as shown in Fig. 4. 

Beginning at the bottom place the thatch- 
ing material on these light poles, finishing 
one complete row before commencing the 
next higher, and thus letting each successive 
layer overlap the one beneath like shingles. 
In Fig. 4a the method of thatching with 



PERMANENT CAMPS 187 

various materials is shown. The roof is 
finished in the same manner and the thicker 
the bundles of thatch and the closer the lay- 
ers the tighter and more waterproof will be 
the finished hut. 

Making Bridges 

If you are camping out near a brook or 
stream which must be frequently crossed, 
you will find some sort of a bridge very 
useful and you have no idea how much fun 
it is to build bridges until you try it. Even 
if you are not camping you will find that 
building bridges across small streams is lots 
of sport, and you can spend many a vacation 
day in bridging the small streams of your 
neighbourhood. 

There are many easy ways of building 
bridges and the simplest of all is to fell a 
good-sized tree across the stream and cross 
over on this. Such a bridge is by no means 
satisfactory, however, and unless one '' coons 
it " across one is apt to get a ducking, es- 
pecially if it is raining and the tree trunk is 
wet and slippery. A better method is to fell 
two trees side by side and lay branches or 
limbs across from one to the other, thus form- 
ing a walk or pathway between the trunks. 

Such extemporised bridges serve very well 



188 PERMANENT CAMPS 

over narrow streams, but quite frequently a 
stream may be too wide to bridge with any 
nearby trees or there may be no large trees 
near the banks. In such cases a suspension 
bridge is probably the best style to construct, 
and if you have some strong rope or cable, 
a serviceable suspension bridge may be easily 
constructed. By using a stone attached to 
a light line, or an arrow with a string at- 
tached, the line may be carried across the 
stream and once you have a string across it 
is easy to pull over a larger line and by this 
you may pull over a still larger rope. If 
there are trees or stumps on the banks of 
the stream they will make good supports for 
the cables to your bridge, but it is seldom 
that four stout trees can be found at equal dis- 
tances apart and at the same distances from 
the banks of the stream. It is usually neces- 
sary to make special supports or " towers '* 
on each side of the brook. These may be 
made in a variety of ways, but the simplest is 
to erect four stout posts with a crotch at the 
upper end of each, as shown in Fig. -^a. 
These four sticks should be driven firmly into 
the ground and should point slightly back- 
ward from the brook or stream as shown. 
When driven into the ground all should be 
the same height and they should be at least 



PERMANENT CAMPS 



189 



six feet apart. It is a serious mistake to 
make the cables of a suspension bridge too 
close together, for if you do this the bridge 
will swing badly, whereas if the cables are 




wide apart and the footway is narrow the 
bridge will be very steady. About ten feet 
behind the crotched supports drive stout 
stakes deep into the ground for " anchors." 
If there are trees available use these, for the 
anchors do not have to be exactly in line or 



190 PERMANENT CAMPS 

all the same distance from the " towers," al- 
though it is better to have them so. If there 
are no trees near and the ground is too soft 
or too hard to drive stakes, you may construct 
anchors by burying large rocks and attaching 
the cables to these or a large log may be used 
and held in place by small stakes driven in 
front of it, as shown at B. The next step 
is to stretch the cable from one anchor over 
a tower across the stream, over the other 
tower and last attach it to the anchor on the 
further side. It is not necessary to have the 
cables very tight, but they should both be 
stretched the same amount, and the crotched 
sticks should be high enough to let the cables 
swing well above the water at their lowest 
point (Fig. 5c). When the cables are in posi- 
tion you can proceed to build the bridge 
proper, and this can be done by commencing 
at either bank and building a footway as you 
proceed, so that by the time the footway is 
completed you have crossed over the stream 
while constructing it. 

To construct the footway, you will require 
a quantity of rope strong enough to support 
your weight, as well as numerous stout poles 
or sticks as long as the width of the footway. 
The amount of rope you will require and the 
number of sticks will depend upon the length 



PERMANENT CAMPS 191 

of the bridge. If the supporting ropes and 
cross-pieces are three feet apart they will be 
near enough for ordinary purposes, but if 
they are closer together the bridge will be 
firmer and steadier. First, tie a rope to each 
cable close to one pair of the " towers," using 
a slipknot about the cable and letting the 
ropes hang almost to the ground and cutting 
both exactly the same length (D). Tie 
these to the ends of one of the sticks (E) and 
guy the cross-piece to the " towers," as shown 
at Fig. 6, and place light poles, boards or 
mill slabs with one end resting on the ground 
and the other on the cross-piece, to which 
they should be lashed with ropes, withes or 
cord. Standing on this you should fasten 
the two next ropes, making them slightly 
shorter than the first two and attaching them 
to a cross-piece and placing the footway as 
before. Proceed in this way toward the 
centre of the supporting cables and then grad- 
ually increase the length of the hanging ropes 
toward the further shore, so that the bridge 
appears as in Fig. 6. 

If slipknots are used in attaching the 
hanging ropes to the cables, they will not 
slide out of position. The exact dimensions 
of the various parts will depend upon the 
size of the stream to be bridged, the width of 



192f PERMANENT CAMPS 

the footway and various other matters. A 
footway two feet wide should have the sup- 
porting cables at least four feet apart and 
the hanging ropes should be so graduated in 
length that the footway arches up at the 
centre of the bridge. Instead of lashing each 
footplank to the cross-pieces the latter may 
be connected by side ropes, as shown in 
Fig. Sh G. 

A suspension bridge may even be con- 
structed of wild grape-vines or twisted withes 
and in many out-of-the-way countries bridges 
of this sort span deep canyons and roaring 
torrents. I have seen native-made suspension 
bridges constructed of lianas or tropical vines, 
which seemed most frail and insecure and 
which supported pack-trains of burros with 
perfect safety. Some of the South American 
suspension bridges that are built by the In- 
dians are very crude and consist of but one 
cable with a line of bamboo poles for a foot- 
way beneath it. These affairs swing and 
sway horribly and one expects to be dashed 
to pieces upon the rocks far below at any 
minute. Nevertheless they have been in con- 
stant use for many years and serve every 
purpose for the natives' use. 



PERMANENT CAMPS 193 

Camp Furniture 

When camping only at night and tramp- 
ing and fishing or hunting during the day 
you will not require any camp furniture, for 
a log will serve very well for a chair and a 
couch of fragrant balsam twigs makes the 
softest and most comfortable of beds. In 
a permanent camp or where one spends sev- 
eral days or weeks in one camp, simple camp 
furniture is a great convenience and you can 
obtain a great deal of pleasure and may 
occupy many spare hours in constructing 
tables, chairs and other furniture from the 
material that grows in any patch of wood- 
land. 

A very simple camp bed may be constructed 
by merely cutting four logs, two about eight 
feet long and two four feet long, and arrang- 
ing these in the form of a rectangle and se- 
curing them in position by means of stakes, 
as shown in Fig. 7. 

The space between the logs should then 
be filled by placing balsam " fans," as for 
the lean-to bed already described. In the 
present bed, however, the balsam branches 
should be placed thicker and larger branches 
may be used than for the lean-to affair. The 
four logs will prevent the boughs from 



194 



PERMANENT CAMPS 




spreading out sideways and a very soft 
springy bed will result. 

Another form of camp bed, much used by 
the Western Indians, is the willow bed To 
construct this bed you will need about "sixty 



PERMANENT CAMPS 195 

or seventy straight rods of willow or other 
flexible wood, each about the size of a lead 
pencil and thirty inches in length. You will 
also require a few rods that are longer than 
the above and at least half an inch in diam- 
eter. These should all be pulled and at each 
end of every rod you should cut a small notch 
or groove about half an inch from the end. 

In addition to the rods you must have a ball 
of strong cord about an eighth of an inch in 
diameter, a spool of fine, strong linen thread 
and some shoemakers' wax. 

Cut four pieces of cord each twenty feet 
in length and double each piece in the centre 
and tie a loop-knot, as shown in Fig. 8 A. 
Find two trees about seven or eight feet 
apart and in these drive four nails or pegs 
nine and one-half inches apart up and down 
the tree, as shown at B. Slip the loops of 
the cords over the pegs and twist the doubled 
cords tight and secure them in position by 
twisting around the pegs in the second tree 
(Fig. 8 C). Select one of the stouter rods 
and opening the twisted strands of the cord 
insert the ends of this stick (at the notches) 
and push the rod up tight against the knot 
(D). Place another rod in position in the 
same way, but leaving a space of an inch 
between the two and placing the large or butt 



196 



PERMANENT CAMPS 




rfflilllP^' 




end of one next to the smaller or tip end of 
the other (E). Continue to insert rods in 
this manner and wherever a rod passes 
through a cord (four places on each rod) 
lash rod and cord with waxed linen thread 



PERMANENT CAMPS 197 

as shown at F. When the rod work has 
progressed for six feet, insert a stout rod and 
tie loops in the cords. From this point 
insert rods of shorter length so that for 
eighteen inches more the frame narrows down 
as shown at G. The bed is now complete and 
only requires placing on a frame or support 
to be used. The bed may be supported on 
logs or poles three or four inches in diameter 
with the ends of the rods resting on the logs 
and the loops of the cords staked out with 
short stakes driven at an angle in the earth 
to support the head (Fig. 8 H). If desired, 
the head may be covered with canvas or 
cloth. Such a bed is easily rolled up for 
transportation and is really very comfortable 
when covered with a blanket or even a layer 
of fir twigs, the butts of which may be stuck 
between the rods. If made with good, stout 
cord the bed may be supported by the end 
loops only, thus forming a sort of hammock. 
If there are no trees at hand on which to 
stretch the cords while making the bed, a 
frame of wood may be built or a couple of 
sticks may be driven into the ground or the 
cords may be fastened to an overhead beam 
and the lower ends held taut by a heavy 
pole or log suspended from them. 



198 PERMANENT CAMPS 

A Simple Canvas Cot Bed 

A very simple and easily transported bed 
for camp use may be made as follows. Take a 
piece of light canvas or heavy twilled cotton 
fifty-four inches wide and seventy-two inches 
long and fold it lengthwise and sew the edges 
together to form a cylindrical case twenty- 
seven inches wide and six feet long. Along 
each side, about four inches from the edge, 
run two or three rows of strong stitching, as 
shown in Fig. 9 A. To use the cot, set 
four strong crotched sticks in the earth 
about six and a half feet apart one way and 
twenty-six inches apart the other (Fig. 9 B). 
Cut two stout strong poles two or three 
inches in diameter at the large ends and seven 
feet long. Slip one of these through each 
of the two sleeves in the sides of the canvas, 
with the ends of the poles projecting six 
inches at each end and rest the ends in the 
crotched sticks and your bed is complete 
(Fig. 9 C). By lashing a short crotched stick 
between the ends of the poles, as shown in 
Fig. 9 D, the cot may be used as a hammock 
by attaching ropes to the poles as illustrated in 
Fig. 9 E. When not in use the canvas may 
be rolled up and carried easily. 



PERMANENT CAMPS 199 

^ Tables and Chairs 

Tables may be arranged by driving forked 
sticks in the ground, placing a rectangular 
frame around from stick to stick (Fig. lo A), 
and covering the top with birch bark lashed 
around the frame with withes, hemlock roots 
or cord. If no birch bark is available the top 
may be made of cords stretched from one 
side of the frame to the other and " wattled " 
with rushes, light willow-withes or similar 
materials. Chair seats may be made in the 
same way with legs lashed to the corners and 
with other pieces lashed from one leg to 
another for rungs (B), or permanent chairs 
may be made just like the table, but smaller. 
If you have saws, hammers, nails and other 
civilised tools with you, it is easy to make 
all sorts of rustic furniture, but the ones de- 
scribed may all be constructed with the ma- 
terials found in the woods, a little cord or 
rope and the ordinary ax and jackknife. 



CHAPTER X 

ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 

One of the most useful accomplishments 
for any boy, and especially for the outdoors 
boy who camps, sails or tramps, is a thorough 
knowledge of knots and splices. Many times 
human life may depend upon a knot or a rope, 
and while practically everyone can tie some 
sort of a knot, yet, as a rule, they are un- 
dependable, makeshift affairs which cannot 
be trusted to hold or may become so jammed 
as to be impossible to untie. We often hear 
of a knot being " tied like a sailor's," and 
while it is true that the old-fashioned, deep 
water sailors were experts in handling and 
knotting rope, yet many landsmen, such as 
lumbermen, plainsmen, campers and others 
are fully as adept at such work. Sailors' 
knots are, as a rule, quite different from those 
used by landsmen, for they are designed and 
used for very different purposes, and although 
at first sight it may seem as if any good knot 
would serve to tie a rope, yet in reality 
every knot and splice known is best adapted 
to some particular use or purpose. There 

200 



ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 201 

are such a vast number of knots and splices in 
everyday use that they are really bewilder- 
ing, but among them all there are a certain 
number which are most useful or important. 
Knots may be roughly divided into two gen- 
eral classes: useful knots and ornamental 
knots. The line between the two classes 
cannot be made hard and fast, however, for 
many of the most useful knots are highly 
ornamental as well and a great many of the 
ornamental knots serve useful purposes. It 
is best to learn the really useful ones first, 
however, for, as a rule, they are the simplest, 
and if you once learn the simple knots the 
others will come easy later on. 

In the first place a knot to be useful must 
possess several essential features. It must be 
easily and quickly tied; must be firm and 
strong, with no possibility of being accident- 
ally untied or loosened, it must be equally 
easy to untie or '' capsise," as the sailors say, 
and finally, it must be adapted to the specific 
purpose for which it is to be used. 

Before attempting to learn knots you must 
understand something about ropes, as well 
as the terms applied to the various parts of 
a rope, line or cable. A rope is made up of 
a number of fine threads or '' yarns " twisted 
together into a strand and three or four of 



202 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 

these " strands " form the rope itself. In 
the following descriptions I shall speak only 
of three-stranded rdpe such as is commonly 
seen and used. Some ropes are '' laid up," 
or twisted together " left-handed " or " cable 
laid," but most of the rope we usually see is 
right-handed and three-stranded. 

In the directions the " standing part " must 
be understood to mean the principal portion 
or longest part of the rope; the "bight" is 
the part curved or bent in the rope while 
working, while the " end " is that part used 
in making the knot (Fig. i). Before com- 
mencing to work with a rope the loose 
strands at the ends should be '' whipped " to 
prevent the rope from unravelling. To do this 
take a piece of strong, soft twine and lay it 
on the rope an inch or two from the end, 
pass the twine several times around the rope, 
keeping the ends of the twine under the first 
few turns to hold it in place; then make a 
large loop with the free end bringing it back 
to the rope, continue winding it for four turns 
round rope and end of twine and finally finish 
by drawing the loop tight by pulling on the 
free end (Fig. 2). 

In Fig. 3 are shown two loops, or rings, 
of rope known as '' Cuckold's necks." These 
are easily made by merely bringing the end 



ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 



203 



Fig. 2 Whlppme a Rope. 




B." amch''''^ ^''^^^ Ovefh^nAnou. 




Fie. 17. Bowline Knots. 



Fig. t4. Catspav 



of a rope around in a circular bight and by 
placing a seizing of rope or twine about the 
end and standing part where they cross, a 



204 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 

"clinch" is formed (Fig. 3 B). These cuck- 
old's necks are used in forming many knots 
and the " clinches " are often useful about a 
boat, as they are much stronger than one 
would think. The simplest of all true knots 
is the " overhand knot " (Fig. 4). To make 
this knot merely pass the end of the rope over 
the standing part and through the bight or 
"cuckold neck" thus formed (Fig. 4 A). 
When drawn tight it appears as in Fig. 4 B. 
A " figure-eight knot " is also easily made, 
and in Fig. 5 this knot is shown com- 
menced in A and drawn taut in B. 
The most useful of simple knots is the 
"square knot" or "reef knot" (Fig. 6). 
This knot is used in tying reef points, to furl 
sails, to fasten two lines together and for 
various other purposes and is the best all 
around knot known; if all the boys would 
learn to tie this knot without mistake and 
would use it in tying their shoe strings they 
would never become difficult to untie or 
" jammed " as a sailor says. To make a reef 
knot take one end of the rope in each hand, 
pass the left over and under the right, then 
the right over and under the left. If you 
remember the formula " left over, right 
over " you will never make a mistake and tie 
a "granny" (Fig. 7). To tie a "granny" 



ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 205 

shows the maker to be a land-lubber and 
the knot is a useless, bothersome and in- 
secure thing for any purpose. If in tying a 
reef knot the bight of the left or right end 
is used instead of the end itself, the knot 
becomes a '' slippery reefer " and may be 
quickly untied by jerking on the free end 
(Fig. 8). A very useful and easily made knot 
for fastening a boat or any other object where 
it may be necessary to unfasten quickly is the 
** Lark's Head " shown in Fig. 9. To make 
this knot pass the bight of a rope through 
the ring or other object to which you are 
making fast and then pass a piece of wood, 
marline spike or any other object through 
the sides of the bight and under or behind 
the standing part as shown in Fig. 9 A. The 
end of rope is then laid over and under the 
standing part and back over itself. This knot 
is instantly unfastened by pulling out the 
''toggle" (A). Another useful and easily 
made slipknot is the ''slippery hitch" (Fig. 
10). To make this run the end of the rope 
through the ring or eye, then back over the 
standing part and pull a loop or bight back 
through the cuckold's neck thus made. To 
untie merely pull on free end. A more 
secure hitch for fastening a boat or other 
object is made by two " half-hitches " (Fig. 



206 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 

ii). This knot is widely used by sailors and 
others and is the most reliable and secure of 
quickly tied and easily learned knots. To 
make it pass the end of the rope around the 
post, ring or other object, then over and 
around standing part between itself and the 
post, then under and around standing part and 
between its own loop and the first one made. 
It will be more easily understood by referring 
to the illustration and after a little practice 
you will find that you can tie this useful knot 
in a few seconds. It will hold forever with- 
out working loose and even on a smooth spar 
or stick will stand a great strain without 
slipping. A more secure knot for fastening 
to a round stick or spar or to another rope, is 
the "clove hitch" (Fig. 12). To make this 
pass the end of rope around spar or stick, then 
over itself, over and around the spar and 
pass end under itself and between rope and 
spar as shown in figure. Often you will have 
occasion for fastening a rope to a block or 
hook and for this purpose the " Blackwall 
hitch " (Fig. 13) is very useful and is quickly 
made. To make it merely make a loop or 
cuckold's neck with end of rope underneath 
and pass it over the hook so that standing 
part jams the end. Another strong knot for 
fastening to a hook for hoisting is known as 



ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 



207 



a "catspaw" (Fig. 14). To make this lay 
the bight of your rope over the end and stand- 
ing part, then with a bight in each hand, 
take three twists from you, then bring the 




two bights side by side and hook over the 
hook. For towing a log or piece of timber, 
or for fastening to a spar or mast without 
danger of slipping, the best knot to use is 
the "timber hitch" (Fig. 15). This is easily 
made by passing the end of the rope around 



208 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 

the spar or log, round the standing part and 
then twist it three times around under and 
over its own part. If you wish this still 
more secure, a half-hitch may be taken with 
the line a couple of feet farther along the 
spar (Fig. I5<^). Sometimes you may need 
to fasten two very stiff or heavy ropes or 
hawsers together and will find it impossible 
to do this by any of the knots you know. 
In such cases nothing is better than the 
" Carrick bend " (Fig. i6). Form a bight by 
laying the end of a rope on top of and across 
the standing part. Then take the end of the 
other rope and pass it through this bight first 
down then up over the cross and down 
through the bight again so that it comes out 
on the opposite side from the other end, thus 
bringing one end on top and the other below, 
as shown in the figure. If the lines are very 
heavy or stiff the ends may be seized to the 
standing parts by twine or light rope in addi- 
tion. The last knot I shall describe is the 
'' bowline." This is the sailor's knot par 
excellence, and when you can readily and 
surely tie this knot you may consider yourself 
quite an adept. It is useful for a great variety 
of purposes, never slips, never jams, is easily 
untied and will prove of the greatest value 
around boats. In Fig. 17 the knot is shown 



ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 209 

in its various stages of tying and by following 
the figure you will understand it much better 
than through a description. In A the rope 
is shown with bight or cuckold's neck formed 
with end over standing part. Pass A back 
through the bight; under, then over, then 
under again, as shown in B, then over and 
down through the bight, as shown at C and 
D, and draw taut, as in E. 

Although knots are fairly easy to learn and 
are very useful, yet splices are often more 
valuable than knots and really are no more 
difficult to master. The simplest splice is the 
" short splice," shown in Fig. i8. This is 
made as follows: Untwist the ends of the rope 
a few inches and wrap some twine around it 
to prevent further untwisting, as shown at 
A A. You should also tie bits of twine 
around the ends of all strands to prevent 
them from unravelling. After you have be- 
come an adept at splicing you will be able to 
splice a rope without these seizings of twine, 
but they are quite necessary at first. 

It will also be far easier to learn to splice 
if you wax or grease the strands of the rope. 
Now place the two ropes together, end to 
end, as shown in B B. With a marline spike 
or a smooth pointed stick or piece of smooth 
iron, such as an old ice-pick, work open the 



210 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 




Strand i C, and through this push the strand 
A of the other rope. Next open strand 2 and 
pass the next strand of the other rope through 



ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 211 

the aperture. Then treat the third strand in 
the same way. Now open the strands of the 
second rope in the same manner below the 
seizing and through the openings push the 
strands of the first rope. The two ropes will 
now appear as at D D. Next untwist each 
strand and cut off about half the yarns in 
each and seize the ends with string as before. 
Each of these reduced strands must then be 
poked under the whole rope strands as you 
did before reducing them. After drawing 
each strand tight pass them once more under 
the whole strands and then trim off close to 
the rope. If you wish a really neat, fine 
splice you may cut out a little of the yarns 
each time the strands are passed, thus grad- 
ually tapering the ends and in this way mak- 
ing a splice that is but slightly larger than 
the original rope. 

An '' Eye splice " (Fig. 19) is made in the 
same manner as the short splice, but instead 
of splicing the two ends of separate ropes to- 
gether the end of the rope is unlaid and then 
bent into a loop and the ends spliced into 
its own strands as shown in the illustration. 

A '' Cut splice " (Fig. 20) is made much 
in the same way as the eye splice, but instead 
of turning the rope in a loop or '' bight," two 
ropes are spliced together overlapping, or a 



212 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 

short rope is spliced at both ends into another 
rope. 

A "Long splice" (Fig. 21), is the hardest 
splice to learn to make, but if it is well done 
it cannot be distinguished from the original 
rope and will pass through a block or an eye 
as readily as a whole rope. To make the 
long splice, unlay the ends of the ropes about 
four times as much as for a short splice or 
from four to five feet and unlay one strand 
in each rope for half as much again. Place 
the middle strands together as in A, so that 
the long strands will appear as at B and C 
and the spiral groove left where they were 
unlaid will look like D E. Take off the two 
centre strands F and G and lay them into the 
grooves D E until they meet B C and be sure 
to keep them tightly twisted while doing 
this. Then take the strands H and J, cut out 
half the yarns in each, make an overhand 
knot in them and stick the ends in the same 
way as in making a short splice. Do the 
same with the strands B C and F G, dividing, 
knotting and sticking the reduced strands in 
the same manner. Finally stretch the rope 
tight, pound and roll it until smooth and 
trim off any loose ends of yarn close to the 
rope. Another very useful piece of rope 
work is a ring, known as a '' Grommet " (Fig. 



ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 213 

22). This is very easily made by taking a 
strand of rope, unlaid from any common 
rope, laying one end over the other at the 
size of the ring you desire and with the long 
end follow the grooves or '' lay " of the strand 
until it comes back to where you started, thus 
forming a ring of two strands. Continue 
twisting the free end into the groove between 
the other strands until the ring is completed 
with three strands all around. Next finish 
the grommet by dividing the yarns of the 
two ends where they meet, making overhand 
knots in them and passing them underneath 
the nearest strands as when making a splice 
and finally trim off all loose ends. Such rings 
or grommets make very nice quoits and are 
useful for a variety of other purposes as well 
as for handles of chests and boxes, rings for 
masts of small boats, etc. 

If you learn all these useful knots and 
splices you will be able to form a knot or 
make a splice for any and every occasion, and 
if you master the fancy or ornamental knots 
you will find a great deal of amusement in 
making them and in many cases they will 
come in very handy. 

Many dull hours or wet, unpleasant vaca- 
tion days may be spent pleasantly and ad- 
vantageously in making various knots, and 



214 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 

you will find that you and your boy friends 
can get a lot of fun out of knot-tying com- 
petitions. 

Fancy Knots and Other Rope Work 

After you have learned how to tie the knots 
already described and how to splice ropes 
properly, you may find a great deal of amuse- 
ment and may pass many a spare hour learn- 
ing the more ornamental knots and " ending 
knots/' A great many of these pretty knots 
are very useful, especially about boats, and 
if you look about on board any sailing vessel, 
whether yacht, man-of-war or merchantman, 
you will be sure to find a number of them in 
use. Many of these knots appear very intri- 
cate and difHcult to the inexperienced ob- 
server, but in reality it is no harder to learn 
to tie a good " Turk's Head " or '' Matthew 
Walker " than a reef-knot or bowline, and 
after you once learn how to tie them you find 
it an art you will never forget. In the old 
sailing ship days every able-bodied seaman 
could tie practically every knot known, and 
" marline-spike seamanship " was considered 
of great importance. With the increase of 
steam vessels and the adoption of wire rig- 
ging; knots, splices and fancy work became 



ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 215 

of less value and importance, but even to-day 
nearly every ship that sails has at least one 
member of her crew who is a proper sailor 
and can tie knots, splice ropes, serve, or 
weave sennet as well as many of the old- 
time salts. 

Once you have learned how to tie the 
various knots you will constantly find new 
uses for them which never occurred to you 
before, and if you own a boat of any sort you 
can add much to her appearance and " yacht- 
iness " by a liberal use of your skill in knot- 
ting and splicing. The most important of 
the ornamental knots and the ones I shall 
try to teach you to make, are the Crown, 
with its variations (Figs. 2^, 24) ; the Wall 
(Figs. 25 and 26); the Matthew Walker (Fig. 
32) and the Turk's Head (Fig. 33). By the 
use of these and combinations of two or 
more an immense number of fancy knots 
may be devised and many of these combina- 
tions have been in such general use that they 
have become recognised as regular knots, 
such as the Wall and Crown, Double Wall 
and Crown, etc. In addition to these real 
knots, the covering of rope or rigging to 
make a smooth even finish or " Worming, 
Parcelling and Serving," should be included 
as ornamental work, while Four-Stranded 



216 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 

Braid and Crown Braiding are widely used 
in making lanyards, hand lines, fenders, etc. 
In addition to these the amateur rope worker 
should be familiar with the '' Monkey Chain," 
and should know how to properly sling a 
barrel, cask or bundle. 

The material best suited to tying fancy 
knots is either very fine stranded and flexible 
hemp or closely twisted soft cotton rope. 
Either of these is good, but ordinary manilla 
is too stiff and bristly to work well for the 
beginner. Select a piece of new rope and 
some fine cotton twine and if possible have a 
fid, marline spike or piece of smooth-pointed 
hard wood to help in your work. Unlay the 
strands of the rope for six inches or so and 
pass a seizing of twine around the end of each 
strand and around the rope below as shown 
in the figure. This will keep your strands 
and the rope from unlaying further and will 
save lots of bother. An expert can work 
without the seizings but you will find it best 
not to try this. We will now try the simplest 
of fancy knots, known as the Crown. Hold- 
ing the rope in your left hand, fold one strand 
over and away from you, as shown in A, Fig. 
23, then fold B over A and, holding these 
two strands in place by your thumb and fin- 
ger, pass C over B and through the bight of 



ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 



217 



A as shown. Now pull all the ends tight 
and work the bights up snug and you will 
have the single Crown knot shown. This 
is a poor knot to stand by itself, however, 
and is mainly of value as a basis for other 




Fig. 33 



knots and for ending up rope. To end up a 
rope with a Crown it is merely necessary 
to tuck the ends of the strands under and 
over the strands of the standing part as 
shown in Fig. 24, and taper them down and 
trim closely exactly as in making an Eye 
Splice, described already. This makes a most 



218 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 

neat and ship-shape way of ending up ropes 
such as painters, halliards, etc. It will never 
work loose like a seizing and is quickly put 
on at any time, whereas one often wants to 
end up a rope when no small stuff for seizings 
is at hand. 

The Wall (Figs. 25, 26) is almost as sim- 
ple as the Crown, and in fact is like a Crown 
reversed. In making this knot bring C 
downward and across standing part, then 
bring strand A over C and around standing 
part and finally bring B over A and up 
through bight of C. As in the Crown, the 
Wall is of value mainly as an ending knot 
when ends are tucked as in Fig. 26, or as 
a basis for other knots. Either the Wall 
or Crown may be rendered more orna- 
mental and useful by '' doubling." This is 
done by following around the lay of the 
strands on a single Wall or Crown. That is, 
after making your single wall knot, bring 
strand A up through its own bight, beside the 
end of C. Then bring B up through its own 
bight beside A and bring C up through its 
own bight beside B. This will give you the 
knot illustrated in Fig. 27. A still better 
effect may be had by crowning a Wall knot. 
This is done by first making a Wall and then 
bringing the strand A up over the top, lay- 



ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 219 

ing B across A, and bringing C over B and 
through bight of A. This is the foundation 
of the most beautiful of rope-end knots known 
as the Double Wall and Crown or Man-Rope 
knot, shown in Fig. 28. Make your single 
Wall and Crown it, but leave the strands 
slack. Then pass the ends under and up 
through the bights of the slack single wall 
and then push the ends by the side of those 
in the single crown, pushing them through 
the same bight in the crown and downward 
through the walling. It sounds quite diffi- 
cult, but if you have learned to wall and 
crown before attempting it, you will find it 
easy enough, for it is really merely '' follow- 
ing " the strands of the single wall and 
crown. The result, if properly done and 
ends drawn tight and cut off closely, is sur- 
prising and, to the uninitiated, most perplex- 
ing, for if the ends are " tucked " through 
the strands of the standing part, as shown in 
Fig. 2S, there should be no sign of beginning 
or ending to this knot. This is, perhaps, the 
most useful of ornamental knots and it comes 
in very handy in many places. It is often 
used in finishing the ends of rope railings to 
gangways, the ends of Man-ropes (hence the 
name), for the ends of Yoke-lines, and to 
form " stoppers " or toggles to bucket han- 



220 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 

dies, slings, etc. Its use in this way is illus- 
trated by Figs. 29, 30 and 31, which show a 
handy topsail halliard toggle formed by turn- 
ing an eye splice in a short piece of rope 
finished with a double wall and crown at the 
end. Such toggles are very useful about 
small boats. They may be used as stops for 
furling sails, for slings around gaff or spars 
for hoisting and in a variety of other places 
v^hich will suggest themselves to the young 
sailor. The most difficult of ending knots 
and one which every amateur sailor should 
learn is the Matthew Walker, or " Stopper 
Knot" (Fig. 2>^). To form this knot, pass 
one strand around the standing part and 
through its own bight, then pass B under- 
neath and through the bight of A and through 
its own bight also. Then pass C underneath 
around and through bights of A, B and its 
own bight. The knot will now appear as in 
Fig. 32 A, but by carefully hauling the ends 
around and working the bights tight a little 
at a time, the knot will assume the appear- 
ance shown in Fig. 2>^ B. This is a very 
handsome and useful knot and is widely used 
on the ends of ropes where they pass through 
holes, such as bucket handles, ropes for lift- 
ing trap-doors, chest handles, etc. The knot 
is well adapted for this purpose as it is hard, 



ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 221 

close and presents an almost flat shoulder on 
its lower side. 

The Turk's Head (Fig. ;^2>) is a knot much 
used aboard yachts and warships and is so 
handsome and ornamental that it is a great 
favourite. It is used in ornamenting lower 
rigging, in forming rings or shoulders on 
stays or ropes to hold other gear in place, to 
ornament yoke lines and for forming slip- 
collars on knife lanyards, gun lanyards, etc. 
It is also used to form collars around stanch- 
ions or spars, and placed around a rope close 
beneath a Man-rope knot it gives a beautiful 
finish. Although so elaborate in effect it is 
really an easy knot to make and while you 
may have difficulty in getting it right at first, 
a little patience and practice will enable you 
to become proficient and capable of tying it 
rapidly and easily in any place or position. 
To make the Turk's Head, have a smooth 
round stick or other object and some closely 
twisted or braided small line. Pass two turns 
with the rope around the rod. A, Fig. ^3'^ 
pass the upper bight down through the lower 
and reeve the upper end down through it, B, 
Fig. 33. Then pass the bight up again and 
pass the end over the lower bight and up be- 
tween it and the upper bight. Dip the upper 
bight again through the lower one and pass 



222 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 

the end over what is now the upper bight and 
between it and the lower, C, Fig. 33. Work 
around in this manner to the right until the 
other end is met, when the other part is 
followed round until a plait of two or more 
lays is complete, as shown in Fig. 33. The 
Turk's Head may be drawn as tight as de- 
sired around the rod or rope by working up 
the slack and drawing all bights tight. A 
variation of this knot may be formed by 
making the first part as directed and then, by 
slipping the knot to the end of the rod, work 
one side tighter than the other until the 
Head forms a complete cap. This makes a 
splendid finish for the ends of stanchions, 
poles or fiagstafTs. Ropes that are to be used 
for hand lines, stanchions, man ropes or life- 
lines or, in fact, for any purpose where ap- 
pearance counts, are usually wormed, par- 
celled or served. Worming consists in twist- 
ing a small line into the grooves between the 
strands of a rope (Fig. 34 A). This fills 
up the grooves and makes the ropes smooth 
and ready for parcelling. This is done by 
wrapping the rope with a strip of canvas (Fig. 
34 B). This is tarred and the whole finished 
by " serving " or wrapping tightly with spun 
yarn, marline or other small stufT (Fig. 34 C). 
Although this may all be done by hand, yet 



ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 



223 



the serving is usually accomplished by using 
a " serving mallet," shown in Fig. 34 D. This 
instrument enables you to w^ork tighter and 
more evenly than by hand-serving, but in 
either case the rope to be treated should be 




FiQ. 37 



stretched tightly betw^een two firm supports. 
Often a rope is served without parcelling and 
for ordinary purposes the parcelling is not 
required. A variation of serving is made by 
" half-hitch " work, as shown in Fig. 35. 
This is quite pretty when well done and is 
very easy to accomplish. To do this, take a 
half-hitch around the rope to be covered, then 
another below, draw snug, take another half- 
hitch and so on until the object is covered 



224 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 

and the half-hitches form a spiral twist as 
shown in the illustrations. Bottles, jugs, 
ropes, stanchions, fenders and numerous 
other objects may be covered with this orna- 
mental half-hitch work and as you become 
expert you may be able to cover things with 
several lines of half-hitch work at the same 
time. Four-strand braiding is highly orna- 
mental and is very easy and simple. The 
process is shown in Fig. 36 and consists in 
merely crossing the opposite strands across 
and past one another as illustrated in A, B 
and C, Fig. 36. A still more ornamental 
braid is made by crowning four or more 
strands or separate lines and looks like the 
right-hand illustration in Fig. 37. The proc- 
ess is exactly like ordinary crowning and 
does not require any description. Walling 
may be continued in the same way, but is not 
as handsome. The Monkey Chain is some- 
times used in ornamental rope work, but is 
principally useful for shortening rope in such 
a manner that it may be readily lengthened. 
It is well shown in Fig. 38. To make the 
chain draw a loop of the rope through its 
own bight, A, Fig. 38, another loop through 
this, C, Fig. 38, another through this, and 
so on until the rope is shortened to the re- 
quired length. The end may then be passed 



ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 225 

throdgh the last loop as shown at E, Fig. 38. 
If to be used for a permanent chain, the end 
may remain thus and the chain will never 
work loose. If used to shorten rope and the 
slack is required at any time, it is only nec- 
essary to slip out the loose end and jerk on 
the end, when the entire chain will unravel 
instantly. 

No article on knots would be complete 
without some mention of slings, for to sling 
a barrel, cask, box or bale safely and easily 
is often of great value and importance. 
While the boy familiar with knots and splices 
will no doubt devise practical slings of his 
own, yet the three shown herewith in Figs. 
39, 40 and 41, may serve as hints to readers. 
Fig. 39 shows a useful sling for bags or 
bales, and consists merely of a length of 
rope spliced together and slip-noosed around 
the object as shown. Fig. 40 shows how to 
sling a barrel upright, while Fig. 41 shows 
how to sling a cask in a horizontal position. 
In this case the rope may be used with an eye- 
splice at one end, as illustrated, or it may 
be merely tied at both ends. Sometimes a 
similar sling is used in which an eye-splice 
is turned in each end in place of the knot 
shown. There are numerous other knots both 
useful and ornamental, but those described 



226 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 

are the more important and if you learn to 
make all of these you will be able to pick up 
others from sight or description, for each one 
learned makes the next easier. 



CHAPTER XI 

SWIMMING AND DIVING 

Every boy should know how to swim, 
even if he never expects to go on the water. 
Fortunately nearly every boy wants to learn 
how to swim and comparatively few out-of- 
doors boys fail to learn. The best way to 
learn to swim is to get some other fellow to 
teach you; it's a hard matter to teach any- 
one to swim by writing about it, for even 
with the help of a good swimmer it's not al- 
ways easy to learn. One tries and tries again 
and again and almost gives up in despair 
and then suddenly, without just knowing- 
how, you find you are really swimming. 
Some boys never can learn the trick, but with 
patience and perseverance nearly everyone 
can learn to swim after a fashion. Of course 
some people are more expert than others, — 
there are always experts in every line, — but 
as a rule, after you once learn to swim a little, 
you can rapidly improve and learn a number 
of strokes and '' fancy swimming." If you 
once learn to swim you never forget how 
and although you may go for years without 

327 



228 SWIMMING AND DIVING 

swimming a single stroke, yet the first time 
you try you find all your old skill comes 
back instinctively. 

The first thing to learn, and to always 
remember, is that the human body will float 
as long as the lungs are filled with air; that 
is, the body is lighter than the water it dis- 
places. It is so slightly lighter, however, 
that only a small portion of the body will 
remain above the surface, but few people, — 
if indeed any, — will actually sink if they do 
not become frightened or thrash about. 
Some people float better than others and 
women float better than men as a rule; but 
it is only necessary to have confidence and 
keep your head in order to float quite com- 
fortably without the slightest effort, and by 
a slight motion of your hands or feet a good 
portion of your head and body may be kept 
above the surface. The first step in learning 
to swim is confidence. If you fear the water 
it will take a long time to learn to swim, for 
you must have full confidence in your ability 
to conquer the water if you expect to learn 
to swim well. Perhaps the best way to gain 
confidence is to practise floating and this 
can be done in quite shoal water where you 
feel perfectly safe. To float on the back one 
needs to merely lie down on the water, throw 



SWIMMING AND DIVING 229 

the head well back, with mouth and chin up, 
and drop the arms beneath or hold them at 
the sides. If you find the water rising around 
your ears or even to the corners of your 
mouth, do not get nervous or try to rise; 
remain perfectly still or paddle downward 
slightly with your hands, and you will find 
that before the water rises to your mouth and 
nose you are floating upon the water as com- 
fortably as if lying on a soft feather bed. 

The next step in learning to swim is to 
learn to breathe properly. More swimmers 
have been drowned by improper breathing 
than by any other cause. A good swimmer 
may drown by having cramps, by becoming 
chilled, by striking some other object or by 
exhaustion; but if he has learned to breathe 
properly he will never choke or drown by 
his mouth and lungs becoming filled with 

water. 

The majority of people, when rising to the 
surface, attempt to expel the air in their 
lungs and inhale a new supply as their head 
bobs into the air. This is a mistake, for if 
the air is expelled just before you rise to 
the surface, you can inhale a good long 
breath before a wave slaps you in the face 
or you sink again. 

In order to learn to breathe properly it is 



230 SWIMMING AND DIVING 

a good plan to stand in water about up to 
your shoulders and move your head up and 
down in the water by bending the knees, 
keeping the head well below the surface by 
lifting the mouth clear. Take a long, deep 
breath with your mouth open, turn the head 
beneath the water, exhale the air through the 
nostrils, swing the mouth up again and repeat 
over and over again until it becomes per- 
fectly natural to breathe in this manner. 

Water-wings are an excellent aid in learn- 
ing to swim and every beginner will do well 
to use them. The commonest, and supposedly 
easiest, of all styles of swimming is the 
'' breast stroke," but it is by no means the 
swiftest or the easiest and nowadays it is 
largely giving place to the '' crawl," " side " 
and " back " strokes. In using the breast 
stroke the head, and often the shoulders, are 
held above water and the result is that a good 
deal of energy must be used in keeping them 
there. Moreover when swimming on the 
breast a " bow-wave " is made and the body 
presents a large, broad surface to the water. 
In addition, the kick required for the breast 
stroke is a complex afifair and is far from 
natural. By turning on the back the frog- 
like kick is easier and the mouth may be held 
out of water without a strain on the neck 



SWIMMING AND DIVING 231 

muscles. In the " crawl " the entire body 
and head are beneath the water in a hori- 
zontal position, the head being merely turned 
to one side to inhale the air, and thus no 
effort is wasted in keeping afloat and com- 
paratively little resistance is offered to the 
passage of the body. 

A person may learn to swim with the 
crawl-stroke with wrists and hands alone, 
but the leg work is important and is also 
far more diflicult to learn than the hand 
work. 

The old-fashioned side stroke is another 
good form of swimming and even the despised 
" dog-paddle '' is far better than nothing and 
serves a useful purpose. No matter which 
style you learn first you should not rest con- 
tent until you have mastered them all, for on 
a long swim or when in the water for some 
time, you will find it a great relaxation to 
shift from one stroke to another. It makes 
little real difference which stroke you acquire 
first, for if you are learning to swim in order 
to be safe in the water you can just as well 
learn one stroke as another at first. Long be- 
fore the crawl-stroke was known in America 
people saved their own lives and the lives of 
others with the old-fashioned breast stroke 
and I doubt if there are any more lives saved 



232 SWIMMING AND DIVING 

to-day in proportion by the newer and show- 
ier crawl-stroke. Nevertheless the newer 
strokes are splendid and for fast, easy work 
are far superior, but if you find it easier to 
learn to swim on your breast or back or even 
to dog-paddle, by all means learn that way; 
you will have greater confidence in yourself 
if you can swim some one way and that will 
make learning other methods much easier. 

Diving, like swimming, requires practice in 
order to become proficient and the only way 
to learn to dive properly is to have someone 
teach you, you cannot learn from printed 
directions. There are a few important points 
in regard to diving which you should always 
bear in mind. Never attempt to dive unless 
you are able to swim well, and never dive 
unless you are sure there is sufficient depth 
of water to insure your not striking bottom. 
Many boys and men have lost their lives by 
neglecting this simple precaution. Com- 
mence diving from a short distance above 
the water and increase the height as you 
learn to dive better. Do not hesitate too 
long; as soon as you are ready and properly 
balanced dive at once; to hesitate and dally 
invites disaster in diving, and people are 
often injured in this way. Do not dive if you 
feel nervous, uncertain or lacking confidence. 



SWIMMING AND DIVING 233 

The chances are that under such circum- 
stances you will involuntarily make some 
motion or effort to check yourself at the last 
instant and as a result will strike the water 
in a dangerous, or at least uncomfortable, 
attitude. If you use a springboard have it 
smooth and free from splinters; spruce or 
yellow pine is better than oak. Do not try 
fancy diving until you are expert in straight- 
forward diving. Do not dive where others 
are swimming or bathing; a human body fall- 
ing from even a few feet strikes with dan- 
gerous force. 

If you wish to have real fun make a rope 
swing, as illustrated in Fig. i. This beats 
a springboard all to pieces for sport, but 
it cannot be called either a graceful or useful 
method of entering the water. To make the 
swing, merely fasten a smooth round stick to 
a piece of rope, the other end of which is at- 
tached to a branch or beam over or near the 
water. Grasp the two ends of the stick in 
your hands, walk back to the limit of the 
rope, run rapidly forward and as the rope 
swings you off your feet and over the water 
let go with both hands. With practice you 
may learn to turn somersaults or double 
somersaults before striking the water, but at 
first you will strike the surface in a heap 



234> 



SWIMMING AND DIVING 



and with a mighty splash. The swing should 
be so arranged that it is a little higher than 
your head as you stand directly beneath it. 

Finally let me advise you not to overdo 
things and stay in the water too long; an 




hour is as much as most people can stand. 
And last and most important of all, never go 
into the water right after eating; there is no 
better way of bringing on peritonitis and 
other deadly stomach and intestinal troubles; 
wait at least an hour and a half after meals 
before entering the water, and always avoid 
plunging into cold water when you are warm, 
perspiring or overheated. 



SWIMMING AND DIVING 225 

Swimming Floats and Springboards 

As a rule the shores of lakes, ponds, 
streams or even salt water are seldom safe 
places from which to dive and swim. Of 
course there may be deep water close to shore, 
but in the majority of cases there are stones, 
stumps, shoals or other obstructions which 
make diving dangerous. By building a swim- 
ming float a safe and convenient place may 
be made from which to dive. By attaching 
a springboard to the float and by erecting a 
shelter on one end, the float may be made 
to serve many purposes. It may be moored 
in any convenient spot and will serve as a 
raft, house-boat, fishing-float, boat-dock and 
swimming-float combined. 

It is a very easy matter to construct such a 
float, and if several boys work together the 
whole affair may easily be built in a couple 
of days. The first requisite is six strong, 
water-tight barrels, which should be given 
a good coat of paint, tar or pitch. Secure two 
pieces of 2 x 6 scantling, each ten feet long, 
and four pieces each twenty feet in length, and 
nail these firmly together in a rough frame, 
as shown in Fig. 2, having the space between 
A and B and C and D just wide enough to ad- 
mit the barrels easily, as illustrated. Place the 



^36 



SWIMMING AND DIVING 



ii 1 m 


Fig. 2 


;i- ■lli^H 



Pro. 3 




\^iJZ ^^^C— 




six barrels in the frame, as illustrated, having 
a barrel close against each end on both sides 
and with the odd ones half-way between. 
Cut eight short pieces of the scantling, each 



SWIMMING AND DIVING 237 

the length of the barrels, and nail these in 
position on either side of the middle barrels 
and on the inner sides of the end barrels as 
shown at Fig. 2 A, A, A. Now lift the 
framework from the barrels and placing it on 
a smooth, level surface or on horses, proceed 
to nail boards across the top, as shown in 
Fig. 3. The boards or planks should be 
smooth on the upper side and those at the 
ends should be long enough to extend clear 
across from one side of the frame to the 
other, but those in the middle may be shorter 
pieces extending only from one timber to 
another. Drive the nails well below the sur- 
face of the boards and if the planking is rough 
or splintery, cover the deck with old canvas 
or carpet. A fish-well may be added to the 
float by boarding up a space in the middle, as 
shown at Fig. 4, and boring a small hole 
through the bottom. A trap-door should be 
fitted over this in the deck and in this well 
you may keep live fish, turtles or other 
aquatic creatures for as long as you please. 

At one end of the float a bracket and socket 
should be made for the springboard. The 
construction of this is so plainly illustrated 
in Fig. 5 that no explanation is required. 
By merely pushing the board into the socket 
A and placing the support B beneath it the 



238 SWIMMING AND DIVING 

board is ready for use, and the springiness 
and angle may be varied to suit your taste by 
simply moving the support B forv^ard or 
back. When the board is not in use or when 
the float is being moved from one spot to 
another the board may be lifted from the 
socket and placed on deck out of the v^ay. A 
hand-rail may also be added and you will 
find this a great convenience in getting onto 
the float from the water, as well as in tying 
up boats or in fastening the float to the shore. 
The method of constructing the hand-rail is 
shown in Fig. 6. At one end of the float a 
lean-to tent or a light board hut may be 
erected and if it is desired to move the 
affair about, crotches should be placed on 
the sides and ends and long sweeps or oars 
should be provided. The crotches, which 
serve as oarlocks, may be cut from natural 
forks of trees and may be set into holes bored 
in blocks spiked to the side timbers (Fig. 7). 
If the water is far from where the float is 
built the latter may be carted to it and the 
barrels rolled or carted to the shore. Do not 
launch the float before placing the barrels in 
position, but set the frame over them and 
roll the whole affair into the water, using 
planks or timbers for a track if the ground is 
rough or uneven. If there are large mill-logs 



SWIMMING AND DIVING 239 

in your vicinity and no barrels are handy, 
you may use logs instead of barrels, placing 
the logs crosswise, as shown in Fig. 8. You 
will find no end of fun in such a float and 
may camp out on it all summer, moving from 
place to place along the water-course or lake 
as your fancy dictates and having just as 
much sport and comfort as if you owned a 
palatial houseboat. In winter the float may 
be drawn up anywhere on shore and left 
without further attention until spring, and if 
the barrels are given a coat of paint each 
season and new hoops are added as the old 
ones rust out, the float should serve you well 
for many years. 



CHAPTER XII 

HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 

Nearly every out-of-doors boy who lives 
near a body of water longs to have a boat 
of some sort and sooner or later he will be- 
come tired of rowing and paddling about and 
will wish to try his hand at sailing. 

There are numerous fatal accidents every 
year due to the careless or improper handling 
of sailboats, and many people have become 
so fearful of sailing craft and so prejudiced 
against them that they have an idea that to 
venture out in a sailboat is far more danger- 
ous than to paddle a canoe. As a matter of 
fact a sailboat, if well built, properly rigged 
and intelligently handled, is as safe as a row- 
boat or launch and far safer than the best 
canoe ever built. 

Everyone who uses a sailboat, however, 
should learn to swim, for although excellent 
swimmers are often drowned, yet the knowl- 
edge that you can swim will give yourself 
and your friends confidence and may result 
in saving your own or some other person's 
life. The same is true of rowboats, launches 

^0 



HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 241 

or canoes, and a person who cannot swim has 
no business fooling around in boats. No 
matter how well you can swim never take 
to the water, as long as the boat floats; stick 
to your ship no matter in what condition she 
may be, until compelled to desert her by her 
sinking beneath you. A water-logged or 
capsised boat will float for hours or even 
days, it will support several persons and is 
far more likely to be seen by other boats or 
by people ashore than a swimming person. 
It takes very little to support a person in the 
water, — an old bucket or pail held perpen- 
dicularly wrong side up, an open umbrella, a 
high hat, or even a derby will hold enough 
air to support a person for a long time, while 
an oar, a grating, a plank or a spar will serve 
the same purpose. 

There is no need of having a boat capsise 
or sink under normal conditions, but even the 
best sailor may meet with an accident, a 
sudden squall or a collision, and it is well to 
be prepared. In boat sailing, as in many 
other things, it is of the utmost importance 
to keep your head; don't get "rattled" no 
matter what happens. Learn to move and act 
quickly, surely and intelligently without 
clumsiness or getting tangled up in ropes or 
gear. " Make haste slowly " is a fine motto 



242 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 

for boat sailing and never take chances; 
it is far better to reef or shorten sail too soon 
or in a moderate wind than to wait too long 
or carry too much sail in a blow. One often 
sees some foolhardy boy or man sailing in a 
stiff blow with all sail set and risking boat 
and life to " show off," and although such 
people may laugh at your caution, in the end 
you will come out the best. 

Remember that no two boats handle alike 
and if possible confine yourself to one boat 
and learn her every whim and trick; just how 
much sail she requires to do her best; just 
how she sails, to the best advantage; just how 
she steers and handles and all the other little 
peculiarities belonging to that boat. 

Before telling you how to sail, it may be 
well to explain in a few words just how and 
why a boat under sail does certain things, 
such as sailing against the wind or sailing 
with a beam-wind without tipping over or 
capsising. In the first place the wind pressing 
against a sail has two effects on the boat; one 
tending to push it ahead or sideways, the 
other to push it over or upset it. Whereas 
the pushing effect must be preserved and en- 
couraged, the upsetting effect or " heeling " 
must be overcome or resisted. The resist- 
ance to this upsetting force is called '' sta- 



HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 243 

bility," and many boats have sufficient sta- 
bility arising from form alone to overcome 
the tendency to upset, but more often addi- 
tional stability is obtained by adding extra 
weight near the bottom of the boat, either by 
a heavy metal keel, a v^eighted centreboard or 
ballast v^ithin the boat. In addition to sta- 
bility a boat, in order to sail v^ell, must pos- 
sess lateral resistance, or in other v^ords must 
be so constructed as to offer a greater resist- 
ance to travelling sideways than ahead. 
When sailing in any direction, except before 
the wind, there is a strong sideways pressure 
against sails and boat as well as the forward 
pressure, and unless the boat is provided with 
means of resisting this she will slide sideways, 
or diagonally, over the water, or in other 
words will make " leeway." This lateral mo- 
tion is usually overcome by a deep, narrow 
keel or by a centreboard which consists of 
a metal or wooden plate let down through the 
bottom of the boat to prevent the sideways 
motion but which may be pulled up when 
sailing before the wind and thus cause less 
resistance to the speed of the boat. 

The action of the wind on the sails has a 
tendency to force the stern of the boat away 
from and the bow towards the wind, and to 
overcome this the rudder must be turned 



244 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 

until the pressure of the water against it has 
sufficient force to balance the action of the 
wind on the sails (Fig. i). If a boat is prop- 
erly rigged and planned and if left with the 
rudder loose and sails up she will sail a short 
distance and then come up into the wind and 
lose headway; after a few moments she will 
again sail a short distance and repeat the 
operation, and so on over and over again. If, 
on the other hand, she is not properly planned 
and rigged she will sail along faster and 
faster, falling off more and more from the 
wind until the sail suddenly flops over to the 
other side, carrying away ropes and mast or 
upsetting the boat. Such a craft is exceed- 
ingly unsafe, and a good plan is to always 
try a new boat by sailing a short distance and 
then letting the rudder swing free. If the 
boat comes up to the wind quickly and her 
sails shake, you may be sure she will come 
about readily and will take care of herself if 
the rudder is free in case you should be 
obliged to leave the tiller. 

To many people, the fact that a boat can 
sail against the wind is very perplexing and 
hard to understand and it really is a rather 
difficult thing to explain simply and plainly, 
but in Fig. 2 is shown a diagram of a boat 
sailing against the wind or " tacking." If 



HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 245 

we suppose the wind to be blowing from the 
direction of the arrow and the boat to be in 
the position shown at A, we will see that the 




Pig. 5 






1^. 



V'ui. %t 




Fio.8 /(( I r I I' 



Fig. 7 



sail is in such a position that the wind striking 
it tends to push the boat sideways. As the 
centreboard, or keel, prevents this, the boat 
must move forward diagonally in the direc- 
tion of the dotted line C while the wind 



246 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 

glances off the sails toward the stern. This 
direction, however, would never bring the 
boat to the destination D, so that when we 
have sailed as far as we consider advisable the 
tiller is pushed over; the boat comes around 
and the wind filling the sails on the other side 
pushes the boat as shown in B. A little 
further on the rudder must be again turned 
and the boat headed as in E and so, by sailing 
diagonally first in one direction and then in 
another, or zigzag, the destination is at last 
reached. This sailing against the wind or, 
in sailors' terms " tacking " or " beating " to 
windward, requires considerable practice, skill 
and judgment, as well as an exact knowledge 
of your boat and her capability. Some boats 
will sail much closer to the wind than others, 
or in other words will " head up " nearer 
the direction in which the wind comes 
from, and the nearer to the wind you can 
point the boat, the more closely the sail 
must be hauled in toward the centre of the 
boat. If the boat is kept too close to the 
wind, or the sail trimmed in too fiat, the 
boat will move so slowly ahead that she will 
drift sideways and nothing will be gained. In 
sailing into the wind, therefore, you must 
endeavour to keep your boat pointed as near 
the wind as she will sail well and the sails 



HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 247 

should be trimmed in quite flat and then grad- 
ually eased off until the edge of the sail next 
to the mast just commences to flutter and 
wrinkle. This shows you are sailing '' full 
and by " or in other words as close to the 
wind with sails as flat as is advisable. Every 
few minutes the boat should be brought up 
a trifle closer to the wind and then eased 
off so that the sails are always filled and yet 
the edge, by its fluttering, shows the sailor 
that the sheet is trimmed correctly. When 
ready to come about on the next tack the boat 
should be eased off a trifle, the sails loosened 
slightly and as soon as increased speed is 
gained the rudder should be thrown hard 
over, the tiller being pushed away from the 
wind, and as the boat wheels about, the sail 
should be hauled in briskly until it begins 
to fill on the opposite side. Then ease it off* 
again gradually until she is sailing on the 
other tack, as nearly as possible under the 
same conditions as already described. As a 
matter of fact very few boats will sail equally 
well on both tacks, and you must learn by 
experiment which tack gives the best results 
with your craft, and must aim to secure your 
greatest windward gain on that tack. When 
tacking with other persons in the boat you 
should always signal before going about or 



248 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 

tacking. This is usually done by crying 
'' Hard a-lee " and at these words your pas- 
sengers should duck their heads as the boom 
swings over or should shift their seats to 
the other side of the boat, if she keels over 
very much. Some boats are very difficult to 
bring about when tacking and in such cases, 
if they fail to swing around on the other tack 
even with the sheet eased off quite a little, the 
centreboard may be swung up just as you tack 
and again dropped after you have come about, 
or the stern may be swung around by an oar. 
This failure to come about is called " missing 
stays," but if the boat is well built and rigged 
it will hardly ever happen except in a strong 
tide or current. Sailing on the wind, or in 
other words, with the wind blowing to one 
side or partly from the stern (Figs. 3 and 4), 
is very easy and in this position most boats 
get their greatest speed and are the easiest 
to handle. If, when sailing in such a direc- 
tion, you wish to turn about you should al- 
ways haul in your sheet, push tiller to leeward 
(away from wind) and bring the boat around 
into the wind as in tacking and then ease 
off until you are sailing in the direction you 
wish. This is shown in the diagram (Fig. 5). 
If you attempt to turn about without doing 
this, the sail will swing suddenly across the 



HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 249 

boat or will " jibe," and although an old 
sailor can jibe in moderate wind with perfect 
safety an amateur may capsise his boat or 
carry away masts and rigging. In sailing be- 
fore the wind as in Fig. 6, great care must 
be used, for many boats have a decided 
tendency to '' yaw " or swing wildly from 
side to side in this position. If care is not 
used under such conditions the boat may 
jibe with serious results or the sail may 
'' kick up " and become unmanageable, and 
wind itself around the mast or break away 
entirely. If a boat shows a tendency to yaw 
when sailing before the wind it is best to sail 
partly side to, or with the wind over the 
quarter (Fig. 4), and go about, as described 
above, every little while and in this way tack 
down the wind instead of trying to sail di- 
rectly before it. This is known as '' wearing- 
ship," and although a good sailor can safely 
jibe a boat in a stiff wind it is far better to 
take no chances. If it does become necessary 
to jibe, it should be done by hauling in the 
sheet rapidly until the boom swings over to 
the other side and then pay out the sheet 
smoothly and quickly, so that there is no jerk 
or sudden pull as the wind swings the sail 
over. If there is much wind it is also a good 
plan to lower the peak of the sail before 



250 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 

jibing. In sailing before the wind it is of 
great importance to have your boat ballasted 
or " trimmed " properly. If the weight is too 
far forward she will '' yaw " or swing about 
badly and will be hard to steer and handle, 
and will be really dangerous if there is a 
brisk wind and sea. Too much weight near 
the stern will also result in difficult handling, 
but is not so bad as the forward weight. As 
a rule the weight should be so distributed as 
to bring the boat a little deeper aft than for- 
ward, and while the effect of poor trim is 
more apparent when sailing before the wind 
it is really a great disadvantage when tacking 
also. The figures in diagram (Fig. 7) will 
show about how a boat's sails should be 
trimmed for sailing with the wind in various 
quarters. A, shows the boat sailing against 
the wind or "close-hauled"; B, with wind 
forward of the beam; C, with wind abeam; 
D, with wind abaft the beam; E, with wind on 
the quarter, and F, with wind astern or sail- 
ing free. Remember that a boat's sheets can 
be trimmed flatter in light winds and smooth 
water than in rough seas and heavy winds 
and that most boats will sail nearer the wind 
with full sail than when reefed. As soon as 
the wind freshens so that the boat tips down 
or " heels over " to any great extent, or if 



HOW TO SAII< AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 251 

a squall or storm is likely to come up, the 
sail should be reefed without delay. This 
may be done either by anchoring or while 
'' laying to/' In either case bring the boat 
into the wind, drop the peak of the sail or 
partially lower it and bring the boom amid- 
ships. Tie the front edge of the sail to 
the boom with a short piece of line called a 
" reef-earing," then pass the earing of the 
cringle on the leech (after edge of sail) (B, 
Fig. 8) through the eye in the boom and 
stretch the foot of sail as taut as you can and 
tie it securely. When this is done roll up the 
bottom of sail neatly and tie all the reef 
points (C, Fig. 8) tightly with good square 
or reef knots, around bottom of sail as shown 
in Fig. 9. The sail may then be hoisted and 
unless the wind is very stiff your boat will 
be able to carry the reefed sail with safety. 
Most boats have two or more sets of reef 
points and, if necessary, a second reef may be 
taken over the first. Then if the wind dies 
out, the second reef may be shaken out and 
later the first. If taken unawares in a sudden 
squall or puff, the peak of the sail may be 
dropped and thus the size of sail reduced very 
quickly. In case you are caught out in a 
severe blow or thunderstorm, where there is 
plenty of room and you cannot anchor, you 



252 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 

may ride out the blow by means of a drag or 
sea anchor. This is easily made by tying oars, 
old sails, cushions, or, in fact, any objects that 
will float, on the end of a line and passing it 
over the bows of your boat. This serves as a 
drag on the boat, and keeps her head to sea 
and wind. Remember never to make your 
sheet fast, even in the pleasantest weather. 
Hold it in }our hand, or take a turn around a 
cleat so that it may be eased off instantly in 
case of puffs or squalls. In puffy weather it is 
best to ease off the sheet and bring the boat 
into the wind a trifle as each puff comes 
along, and bring her back to her course and 
haul in the slack of the sheet as they pass. 
Many a boat has been upset and many lives 
lost by making a sheet fast. As long as sheet 
and sails are free a boat cannot be upset by 
any ordinary wind, for it then will shake free 
and offer but little surface to the wind. In 
bad weather keep as near the bottom of the 
boat as possible and keep to windward of the 
tiller. Always have sheets, halliards and all 
ropes free from tangles and neatly coiled so 
they can run freely in case of need. Nothing 
is more dangerous than to have a tangle of 
ropes and gear in the bottom of a boat. Al- 
ways keep steerage way on a boat if possible, 
and in case of doubt be on the safe side and 



HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 253 

reef, anchor or get to land as soon as possible. 
Never go out without oars, water and com- 
pass (except on small lakes or rivers). Never 
sail strange waters without a chart or pilot. 
Remember that when tacking, a boat on the 
starboard tack (with wind from right-hand 
side) has the right of way over a boat on the 
port tack (wind from left side). Avoid 
breakers, rapids, tide-rips and whirls. Keep 
your eyes to windward and watch out for 
squalls, puffs and storms. Never try to tack 
or go about in the face of a heavy wave, wait 
until a '' smooth " comes. Remember that a 
boat may always be helped- about with an 
oar. In rough water watch out that the boom 
does not catch in a sea and " trip " when run- 
ning free; this may be avoided by trimming 
in sail and bringing the boat on the wind 
slightly, or by reefing. Always stand to wind- 
ward of a sail when reefing. Never luff a boat 
in bad weather so as to lose way; better ease 
the sheet a little, for if way is lost you may 
quickly upset when you try to get her on the 
wind again. A boat will steer easier before 
the wind with centreboard up. If sailing 
in heavy seas that threaten to come over the 
stern, a pail, or a couple of oars towed behind 
will break the seas, or oil dropped over will 
help. Be cautious when passing in the lee of 



254 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 

a large boat or island, the wind may come 
quick and strong when passed. Never try to 
sail near a moving steamer to " feel the 
swells." Never leave the tiller when sailing, 
or jump about. Never sit on the gunwale or 
climb the mast. Never let clothing, sails or 
rope trail overboard. Never trust a squall or 
thunderstorm. Never sail in fog. Never lose 
your head or get nervous, and if you are cap- 
sised try to crawl up on the side or bottom of 
your boat and she will keep you afloat. If you 
strike a rock or snag do not get frightened 
and leave the boat until you are sure she is 
sinking. A coat, hat, piece of sail or any 
other object may be stuffed into a hole and 
a boat worked to land even when badly 
stoven in. 



CHAPTER XIII 

SAILING ON THE LAND 
Sailing Carts 

In a great many places there are broad, 
level open stretches of country or long, wide 
smooth sand-beaches, and the boys who are 
fortunate enough to live in such districts 
can have lots of fun with Sailing Carts. It 
is not at all difficult to build a good sailing 
cart and as they are perfectly safe and are 
handled in much the same manner as a sail- 
boat you will obtain a lot of practice in 
handling boats, in tacking and in steering by 
amusing yourself with one of these land craft. 

The first step in building a sailing cart 
is to construct the frame or chassis. This 
may be of almost any size, but a very good 
size is fourteen feet long by four feet in 
width. At one end, which will be the stern, 
make a support for the steering-post as shown 
in Fig. I A. This is essential, for a bicycle 
wheel with fork is to be used as a rudder and 
the space beneath the truss must be high 
enough to accommodate the fork and wheel. 

256 



256 SAILING ON THE LAND 

This gallows-like truss should be firmly built 
with the uprights mortised into the side tim- 
bers as shown at Fig. i B, and in addition 
there should be braces at the corners as illus- 
trated. The upper piece of this support must 
be af least three inches thick, in order to pro- 
vide a firm, steady bearing for the steering- 
post and if possible a bushing or piece of 
metal tube should be inserted in the hole for 
a bearing to the steering-post of the wheel. 
The main frame should be of 2 x 4 material, 
edgewise, with a space of twenty-four inches 
between the inner sides, and the main beams 
should be mortised firmly to the two cross- 
pieces (C C) of 4x I stuff. Across the ends 
of these cross-pieces fasten the pieces D D, of 
4 X % material, with two more pieces inside 
(E E) just far enough from the pieces (D D) 
to admit the rear wheels of old bicycles. The 
wheels should be supported by setting the 
cones on the hubs in holes bored in the tim- 
bers and fitted with metal plates as shown in 
Fig. 2, and great care should be taken to have 
both front wheels in line and parallel. This 
is the only difficult part of the work and it 
can only be accomplished by frequent mea- 
surements and care in lining up and squaring 
the frame and holes. 

The rear wheel or rudder is simply placed 



SAILING ON THE LAND 



257 



under the support provided for it with the 
upper part of the fork passing through the 
hole in the timber. A tiller should be at- 




T 



Pig. 1 




Fig. 2 




tached to the fork of the wheel as shown at 
Fig. 3, and a step should be fastened near the 
front end to hold the mast as shown at 



258 SAILING ON THE LAND 

F, Fig. I. The mast should be about fourteen 
feet in length and should slip readily through 
the hole in F and rest in a socket in a second 
cross-piece G. The sail may be of any de- 
sired style, such as the leg-of-mutton, sprit, 
fore-and-aft, lateen or lug design. 

Without the sail the car may be used for 
coasting and with a fair wind the owner may 
sail gaily along any fairly smooth road. A 
great deal more fun may be obtained, how- 
ever, by taking your sail cart to a smooth 
hard beach, to an open level field or to a 
circular race-track. In such places, especially 
on a track, you will be able to try sailing be- 
fore the wind, on the wind and against the 
wind and will be able to learn all about tack- 
ing, going about, jibing and reaching. 

How to Build and Use a Glider 

Nearly every boy has longed to fly at 
some time during his life and since aeroplanes 
have come into use and man has learned to 
actually fly, a great many boys long to be- 
come aviators, or at least to soar far above 
the earth in an aeroplane. 

Aeroplanes at best are more or less danger- 
ous and moreover they are excessively expen- 
sive toys, and a great deal of experience and 



SAILING ON THE LAND 259 

not a little skill are required to handle one 
at all. 

There is a way for boys to fly, however, 
and a safe way at that, and this is by using a 
'' glider." Gliders paved the way for the 
solution of the problem of human flight and 
in a broad sense are nothing more nor less 
than aeroplanes without power. In one of 
these affairs a boy may have all the exhilara- 
tion and sensations of flight without any more 
danger than coasting down hill and, more- 
over, a glider may be built by any handy boy 
at very small expense. 

There are many forms of gliders, the two 
most common forms being known as " Mono- 
plane gliders " and '' Biplane gliders " just as 
aeroplanes are known as Monoplanes and 
Biplanes. While some of the monoplane glid- 
ers work very well, they are not so easy to 
build nor so safe and satisfactory as the 
biplane type. 

Before commencing work on your glider 
have all the materials ready and familiarise 
yourself with the names of the various parts, 
so that you can easily follow the directions 
for building, assembling and using the glider. 
The parts of a glider are not many and all 
the important parts are shown clearly in 
Fig. 4. 



260 SAILING ON THE LAND 

This diagram represents the completed 
glider frame without the covering and with 
portions of the lower plane removed in order 
to show the stays, trusses and rudder-parts 
and to avoid confusion. 

At the front and rear of each " plane " or 
surface are long slender pieces known as 
'' horizontal beams " and extending from the 
upper to the lower beams are a number of 
uprights called " stanchions." 

From the front horizontal beam to that 
at the rear on each plane are six pieces on 
each surface which are known as " struts." 

Between these struts and parallel with them 
are a number of curved pieces called " ribs." 

Between the centre struts on each plane 
and parallel with the long horizontal beams 
are short, stout pieces to which the long, light 
" rudder beams " are fastened, and the latter 
have braces or struts connecting them at their 
extreme ends and at a spot between the ends 
and the planes. 

Hung between the two rudder beams and 
two " rudder-frame struts " is a rectangular 
frame which forms the " horizontal rudder " 
when covered with fabric. 

In addition to these essential parts there 
are two stout sticks on the lower plane be- 
tween the two middle struts. These are 



SAILING ON THE LAND 



261 



used as supports for the operator of the glider 
and are known as " arm pieces." 

All of these " timbers " are made from the 
best selected dry spruce with a straight grain 
and free from knots, and each and every piece 



^'"^^^Ji 




/r'nauaxUl Ortimj Strytii 



ffUidr, Se^^s 



■■■•••. r^ 






"''^•/,*'//>-~--' 



must be made as carefully as possible and 
all must be finished with sandpaper and 
coated with two good coats of spar varnish. 
It is usually a waste of time to try and obtain 
the proper lumber for a glider from local 
dealers and you will get better results and 
will save time and money by securing your 
wood from a dealer in aeroplane supplies. In 
every large city there are dealers in such 
things and by looking through any one of the 



262 SAILING ON THE LAND 

various aeronautical magazines you will find 
their advertisements. 

The material that you will require for the 
glider is as follows: 

Struts 

Twelve pieces each 3 feet long, ij4 inch 
wide and >^ inch thick. 

Horizontal Beams 

Four pieces each 20 feet in length by iK 
inches wide by H inch thick. 

Stanchions 

Twelve pieces each 4 feet long and % inch 
square. 

Ribs 

Forty-one pieces each 4 feet long and K 
inch square. 

Arm Pieces 

Two pieces each 3 feet long, i inch wide 
and iH inches thick. 

Rudder Frame 

Two pieces each 8 feet 11 inches in length; 
two pieces 3 feet 10 inches in length; four 
pieces 2 feet in length and two pieces 6 feet in 
length and all i inch square. 



SAILING ON THE LAND 263 

Rudder-Beam Supports 

Two pieces 2 feet 11 M inches long, i>4 
inches wide and H inch thick. 

Covering 

About twenty yards of either silk or cotton 
fabric one yard wide. Stout silk or plain 
unbleached cotton will answer, but you will 
have better success if you purchase the regu- 
lar aeroplane fabric, as this material is ex- 
ceedingly tough and light in weight and is 
treated chemically to make it waterproof and 
airtight. 

Stays 
One roll of No. 12 piano wire. 

Miscellaneous 

Twenty-four strut or stanchion sockets. 
These may be obtained ready made and 
these regular sockets are more satisfactory 
than anything you can make yourself. Some 
copper or galvanised carpet tacks; some stove 
bolts, shellac, glue, carpenter's tools, varnish, 
sandpaper. 

After the various parts are cut to the exact 
dimensions and have been smoothed carefully 



264 



SAILING ON THE LAND 




.. .zof 



iKi 




you should round off all square edges and 
should work the stanchions into the form 
shown at the section in Fig. 5. 

The pieces intended for ribs should next be 
steamed and bent on a wooden form so as to 
make the curve shown in Fig. 6, the central 



SAILING ON THE LAND 265 

portion of each rib being some two inches 
above the ends. 

The form may be built of planks sawed the 
right shape and with strips nailed across, as 
shown in Fig. 7, and on this a number of ribs 
may be bent at one time, which will result in 
a uniform curve in all. 

The curve required is very slight, and you 
will find but little trouble in bending the ribs, 
which should be held in the proper position 
while drying by cleats placed over them and 
secured to the sides of the form by hooks or 
twisted wires, as illustrated in Fig. 8. 

Although steaming is the best way to pre- 
pare the ribs for bending, yet they may be 
soaked in boiling water in an old wash boiler 
and may thus be softened sufficiently to bend 
them into shape. 

The ribs having been bent and the other 
woodwork rounded off at the edges and the 
proper shape given to the stanchions, go over 
them all with fine sandpaper and varnish with 
the best spar varnish obtainable. When the 
first coat of varnish is thoroughly dry, smooth 
it off with fine sandpaper and apply a second 
coat of varnish. Do not attempt to proceed 
with the work until this second coat is thor- 
oughly hard and dry. 

The next step is to select two of the long 



266 SAILING ON THE LAND 

horizontal beams and lay them on a smooth 
floor so that they are exactly parallel and 
three feet apart. Between the two beams 
place six of the struts, arranging them so 
there is one at each end of the beams and 
the others are spaced two feet apart and 
4/^ feet distant from the end struts. 

You will now have a rectangle composed 
of the two horizontal beams and the end 
struts and with the interior divided into five 
sections by the struts (Fig. 9). 

In fitting these struts in place be very 
careful to see that their ends fit snugly 
against the beams and true up every point 
of contact so that each strut is exactly at 
right angles with the beams. 

This is of the utmost importance, for if the 
plane is askew or out of true the machine 
will never fly well. 

After attending to this detail, mark the 
position of every strut and then carefully 
cut away one edge of each strut for a dis- 
tance of i>^ inches from the end and J4 inch 
deep (Fig. 10). 

These notches must be cut true and square 
and when this is done place the struts on 
the beams and fasten them in position by 
small wire nails and glue. When the glue 
sets the struts must be attached to the beams 



SAILING ON THE LAND 267 

by '' clamps." These are simply pieces of 
sheet brass each ^Vs inches long, i inch wide 
and 1-16 inch thick with the corners and ends 
rounded off and with a /4-inch hole bored in 
eachendasshowninFig.il. You can easily 
make the clamps yourself, but as they are 
secured in position by the stanchion socket 
eyebolts you can make them while waiting 
for the glue to harden. After completing the 
frame for one plane proceed with the other 
in the same way. Then place one of the 
planes with the struts above and the other 
with struts beneath and across the beams 
place the ribs with the curved side up, as 
indicated in Fig. 12. On the upper plane, 
which is the one with the struts above, place 
twenty-one ribs spaced one foot apart and 
on the lower plane place twenty ribs, leaving 
a two-foot space in the centre of the frame 
for the operator's body. 

Arrange the ribs carefully and see that 
they are absolutely square with the beams 
and that one end of each rib is flush with the 
front beam with the other end projecting a 
foot beyond the other beam (Fig. 13). 

You may now secure the ribs in position 
by tacking them in place with fine wire 
nails and then over each rib place a strip of 
brass or copper 2}i inches long and Vs inch 



268 



SAILING ON THE LAND 



wide with the corners rounded, fastening the 
pieces to the beam on each side of the ribs 
with No. 5 round-headed, brass wood screws 
inch long (Fig. i^^). 
Before attempting to place these screws in 



about K 




04»v» St'^f 



the wood be sure and start a hole, for if 
you do not you will probably crack or split 
the wood and if this happens you will have 
to throw it aside and start all over again. 
When all the ribs are clamped in position the 
skeletons of the wings or planes will be com- 
plete, and you may go ahead and fasten them 



SAILING ON THE LAND 269 

together by means of the stanchions. In 
doing this you will require the twenty-four 
brass or aluminum sockets mentioned. These 
are shaped as shown in Fig. 14, and may be 
purchased of any dealer in aeroplane supplies. 
The sockets come designed to receive either 
round, stream-line or oval stanchions and 
in various sizes. Those used for the glider 
should be of the form decided upon for the 
stanchions and about 3/4 inches long, iji inch 
wide and }i inch thick on the base with an 
internal diameter of H inch and an outside 
diameter of iM inch. The height from the 
base to the top should be one inch and the 
screw holes should be >4 inch in diameter 
separated iji inch apart. Two smaller 3-16 
inch holes should be bored in the base out- 
side of the larger holes. 

It is a good plan to secure the sockets be- 
fore working down the stanchions, as in this 
way the stanchions may be smoothed down 
to exactly fit the metal sockets. 

The sockets should be placed, six on the 
front beam of one plane with one exactly 
over the end of each strut, but on the opposite 
side of the beam as shown in Fig. 15. 

Each socket should then be screwed into 
place with small wood screws inserted 
through the smaller holes in the bases and 



270 SAILING ON THE LAND 

over each strut a brass clamp (already de- 
scribed) should be placed and the eyebolts for 
the sockets should be passed through the 
base of the latter and through the j4-inch 
holes in the clamp underneath and the nuts 
screwed firmly in place so as to draw socket, 
beam, strut and clamp together (Fig. 15). 

After the sockets are all attached to the 
front beam, place another set on the rear beam 
and when these are in place fasten the other 
twelve to the other plate in the same manner, 
taking care to place the struts of the upper 
plane above the beams and those of the lower 
plane below the beams. 

The next thing is to set up the stanchions 
in the lower plane sockets, and when doing 
this you should use care to keep the ends 
snug in the cups. In case they are too tight 
to slip in with a little pressure you can rub 
them down a little with sandpaper, but you 
should never whittle or cut them down or 
attempt to drive them into the sockets. If 
they are too loose you will have to make new 
stanchions, although a thin piece of cloth 
glued about them will make a good fit if the 
looseness is not too great. After all the 
stanchions are placed in the sockets of the 
lower plane lift the upper plane-frame and 
set it carefully on the stanchions. You will 



SAILING ON THE LAND 271 

probably require a couple of friends to help 
you at this, for the frame, while light, is very 
clumsy and it is a hard matter to handle it 
alone while placing the upper ends of the 
stanchions in the sockets. If your friends 
will lift the frame and hold it steadily in 
position it is easy to fit each stanchion in its 
proper socket and to get them all evenly and 
snugly in place. 

You should next place the arm pieces in 
position after rounding them smoothly on the 
top, as shown in the section in Fig. i6. Bore 
holes through each arm piece and the lower 
frame beams, using a 3-16 inch bit and placing 
the holes so that the pieces are 6>^ inches on 
each side of the exact centre of the beams, 
thus leaving an open space 13 inches wide be- 
tween the arm pieces. Bolt the pieces in 
place with stove bolts (Fig. 16), and then 
place a cross-piece 2 feet 11 34 inches long 
and 1/4 X M inches between the two central 
struts, 8 inches from the lower beam, and 
another in the same position on the upper 
plane (Fig. 16). These should be fastened 
in place with fine wire nails and glue, and 
with small brass angle-irons screwed onto 
struts and cross-pieces with round-headed 
screws. These angle-irons may be made from 
sheet brass or may be purchased already made 



272 SAILING ON THE LAND 

as desired. The cross-pieces are to support 
the rudder frame, which should next be con- 
structed. You must also make some rudder- 
frame sockets which are simple affairs of 
1-16 inch sheet brass, 4^2 inches long. Two 
of them should be Va- inch in width and the 
other two iYa inch wide bent, as shown in 
Fig. 17, with all ends rounded off and with 
holes drilled as indicated and with additional 
3-16 inch holes through the centre of the 
smaller sockets, as shown in the cut. 

One of the large sockets is attached to each 
of the rear beams and the smaller ones are 
fastened to the cross-pieces by bolts, as illus- 
trated in Fig. 16, the utmost care being taken 
to have the sockets absolutely in line and 
exactly in the centre of the beams. 

If you have done your work carefully the 
frames will now be quite stiff and strong, but 
they must be still further strengthened by 
staying with wire trusses before they will 
serve to support the weight of your body and 
bear the strain of the air against the surfaces 
of the planes. 

To accomplish this properly the framework 
should be placed on a couple of horses so that 
it is perfectly level and true and so that no 
unequal strain comes on any one portion. 
Place the roll of No. 12 wire handy as well as 



SAILING ON THE LAND 273 

some pliers, some short pieces of brass or 
copper tubing of ys inch inside diameter and 
about H inch long, and your soldering outfit. 

There are several methods of trussing in 
use, but the simplest and best for your glider 
is the only one I will describe. A great many 
builders trust to pulling the wires tight by 
hand, but this is a difficult and far from 
satisfactory method, and it is much better to 
use small turnbuckles. Turnbuckles for the 
purpose cost but ten or fifteen cents each, and 
it is not worth while to spoil a good frame 
by attempting to use makeshifts. To truss 
the frames slip a piece of the copper or brass 
tube over the end of a wire, pass the wire 
through an eyebolt, run the end back through 
the tube, bend the end sharply back over the 
tube and press the latter down close to the 
eyebolt, as shown in Fig. i8. Although this 
fastening will usually hold without anything 
further being done, yet it is far wiser to solder 
the tube and wire together. This may be 
done as fast as the wires are attached, but 
it may be accomplished just as well after all 
the wires are in position, thus saving a lot of 
bother and time. 

After fastening one end of the wire to an 
eyebolt, place a turnbuckle on the opposite 
diagonal corner of the section of the frame, 



274 SAILING ON THE LAND 

loosen it nearly to its full extent, pass the 
wire through the end eye of the turnbuckle, 
draw it tight and fasten it as already de- 
scribed. Continue fastening wires and turn- 
buckles on the various corners of the sec- 
tions until the trussing appears as in Fig. 19, 
each section except the small central ones 
being wired diagonally as shown. As such 
wires would interfere with the operator of 
the machine in the centre, a wire is here run 
diagonally from the junction of each central 
strut with the upper beams to the opposite 
corner (Fig. 20). When all the wires are in 
position the turnbuckles should be screwed 
up gradually until every rectangular section 
is absolutely square and every wire is taut 
and gives out a musical note when struck 
with the fingers. It may take a little time 
to get everything just right, but by tighten- 
ing in one spot and loosening in another per- 
fect alignment may be obtained. To test 
the strength of the frame, place it across two 
saw-horses, one at each extreme end, and 
taking your position in the centre, place your 
hands on the arm pieces and lift your weight 
off the floor. If the frame bends or sags ever 
so slightly you must increase the tension on 
the wires until the whole affair is perfectly 
rigid, even when you spring up and down 



SAILING ON THE LAND 275 

or add twenty pounds more to your weight. 

The only things to do now are to build the 
rudders and cover the planes, and it makes 
very little difference which you do first. As a 
rule it is better to complete the entire wood- 
work before touching the fabric, for then you 
can lay aside your carpenter's tools and have 
but one kind of work to attend to. 

The rudder frame is made up of two rec- 
tangular frames joined so that they cross at 
right angles, one being perpendicular and the 
other horizontal. The latter is first con- 
structed with the six rudder frame pieces 
mentioned in the list of materials, the lengths 
of six feet being joined by the four two-foot 
pieces, thus making a frame six feet long by 
two feet wide, with cross-pieces two and one- 
half feet from each end and one foot apart 
(Fig. 21 ). The corners of this frame must 
be joined by half-and-half lapped joints glued 
and nailed and re-enforced by sheet metal 
angles, as illustrated in Fig. 22. 

The frame for the vertical rudder is built 
up from the pieces 8 feet 11 inches long for 
the top and bottom, connected by the pieces 
3 feet 10 inches long. One of these shorter 
pieces connects the two long pieces at their 
ends, another is placed two feet from the first 
and between these exactly midway from top 



276 



SAILING ON THE LAND 



to bottom, the horizontal frame is fastened 
by means of 3-16 inch bolts, which may be 
easily withdrawn. When in position the two 
frames will appear as in Fig. 23, and each 
joint should be carefully made and re-enforced 
with metal braces, for the rudder will receive a 




great deal of strain when the glider is in use. 
At the points marked B B B B, eyebolts are 
placed through the corners of the frames to 
receive stay wires, which support and stiffen 
the rudder frames. The complete frame is 
merely slipped into the sockets already pro- 
vided on the planes and by passing bolts 
through these sockets and the frame it is 
secured in position while truss wires run, as 
shown in Fig. 21; steady the frame and keep 



SAILING ON THE LAND 277 

it true. Two truss wires should be carried 
from the top of the vertical plane to the lower 
sockets on the rear beam of the planes 4>4 
feet from each wing-tip, and two other wires 
should be run from the lower corners of the 
rudder to the top sockets of the same stanch- 
ions. Four other wires are used to brace the 
horizontal plane of the rudders extending 
from its corners to the socket eyebolts which 
support the inner beds of the rudder beams. 

The eight additional wires simply serve to 
brace the vertical and horizontal rudders and 
secure them together and pass from eyebolts 
in the corners of the two frames to eyebolts in 
the opposite frame, all of which are plainly 
shown in Fig. 24. 

The next and last step in the construction 
of the glider is to cover the main planes and 
rudders, and upon the material you use and 
the care with which you cover the planes a 
great deal of the success of the glider depends. 

Nowadays there is no need to use makeshift 
materials for covering a glider, for special 
fabric is sold at all dealers in aeroplane sup- 
plies and costs little more than plain silk or 
cotton. 

There are several methods for covering 
planes in vogue. One is to cut the fabric 
into seven strips, each 4 feet 6>^ inches long, 



278 SAILING ON THE LAND 

and sew the several pieces together to form 
a single piece a little over 20 feet long. The 
seams should be re-enforced by sewing narrow 
strips i>^-inch wide across the cloth and turn- 
ing these over to form a double thickness 
above each rib. An easier method is to cut 
the cloth into strips a little more than four feet 
long and glue the end of each strip around the 
front horizontal beams and tack them in posi- 
tion with small copper or galvanised tacks. 
Then draw the other end of the fabric back 
over the ribs and tack the edges of the strips 
to the ribs as you go along. When placing 
tacks through the fabric, a narrow strip of 
felt or tape should be placed under them to 
prevent them from tearing out, but such 
strips must be almost as narrow as the width 
of the tack-heads, and each piece of tape and 
fabric must be kept very tight and smooth 
and free from wrinkles. The ribs are one foot 
apart and, as the cloth is one yard wide, the 
edges will lap on the ribs. The rear edge of 
the fabric, outside of the rear beams, will be 
loose and flexible between the rib ends. This 
is intentional and you cannot get it other- 
wise. Planes that are covered in this way 
are known as " single surfaced," and some- 
what better results may be obtained by cover- 
ing both upper and lower surfaces of the 



SAILING ON THE LAND 279 

planes. This, in the case of real aeroplanes, 
is important, but for a glider it is a waste of 
time and trouble and merely adds to the 
weight of the machine. 

It is a difficult job to cover the planes 
with the stays and everything in position, but 
you are far less likely to strain or injure the 
frames if it is done at this time. The sur- 
faces of the two rudder frames must also be 
covered with fabric, which is stretched over 
both sides of each frame, passing completely 
around one end, and is then tacked along all 
the edges. The last edge must be turned 
under before tacking in place in order to 
prevent any possibility of tearing out. 

When you have driven the last tack in the 
fabric and have trimmed off the last rough 
edge, your glider is ready to fly, and all that 
is necessary is to find a proper spot in which 
to try it. If such a place is near your home, 
you can easily carry the glider entire, but if it 
is far away the rudder should be disconnected 
and carried separately. 

The rudder is very easily detached by 
merely removing the bolts that hold the frame 
to the cross-pieces and loosening the truss 
wires that extend from the rudders to the 
frame of the planes. The machine may be 
readily taken apart and shipped flat for long 



280 SAILING ON THE LAND 

distances by removing the rudders, loosening 
and unhooking all the turnbuckles, lifting the 
upper plane from the stanchions, removing 
the stanchions from the lower plane and tying 
all the parts neatly together. In packing the 
machine be very careful to coil up the w^ires 
neatly and tie each coil to its proper socket; 
for if the w^ires are bent or kinked they w^ill 
never come true again. Wooden plugs four 
inches long should be inserted in each corner 
socket and the four central sockets of the 
lov^er plane and the upper plane should then 
be set onto these, thus keeping the two planes 
a few inches apart and avoiding all danger 
of chafing or rubbing. The coiled wire may 
be slipped between the planes and the turn- 
buckles, tied to the sockets so they will not 
get lost. The two rudder frames should be 
tied flat together and in this way the entire 
glider may be packed in a space 20 feet long, 
4>4 feet wide and 10 inches thick. 

How to Use the Glider 

Although a biplane glider is perfectly safe 
after you once get accustomed to it, yet you 
should begin carefully and should not attempt 
a flight or glide from a high hill for some 
time. Make your first experiments on a low 



SAILING ON THE LAND 281 

gently-sloping hillside, with a light wind 
blowing, and never attempt a flight in a 
strong, gusty or uncertain wind; even if you 
do not injure yourself, you may wreck your 
machine. Always run toward the wind when 
gliding and remember that in order to make 
a glide you must jump into the air while run- 
ning down hill. Never try to glide over rough, 
broken or uneven ground or over a place that 
is rocky or has stumps, brush or other ob- 
jects that might injure you if you fell. 

In your first attempts at gliding you will 
require two friends to help you. Have these 
two companions hold the ends of the lower 
plane, and while they do this, get beneath the 
machine, grasp the front main beam and 
lift the glider until the arm-rests are close 
up under your armpits. 

Now run quickly down the hill, your two 
friends letting go of the plane as soon as you 
are in motion, and you will not proceed more 
than a few yards before you discover that 
the glider has apparently lost all of its weight 
and is really trying to lift you from your feet. 
This is the time to elevate the front edge of 
the machine slightly and at the same moment 
leap into the air. If your glider is well made 
and your position is correct, you will leave 
old mother earth behind and sail smoothly 



282 SAILING ON THE LAND 

off to the foot of the hill. As you near the 
ground again push yourself towards the rear 
of the glider. This will tip the forward edge 
up and cause it to rise slightly, but at the 
same time it will act as a brake, and the 
machine will lose its forward motion and will 
drop slowly and gently to the earth, where 
you may alight on your feet as easily as a 
bird. Don't attempt to fly more than a few 
feet at first, start near the bottom of the slope 
and gradually walk higher and higher up as 
you gain confidence and experience. 

If, during the glide, you discover that there 
is a tendency to tilt to one side or the other, 
you may maintain your balance by swinging 
your legs and body toward the higher side. 
Only a very slight motion is needed to ac- 
complish this and at first you will no doubt 
swing too far or too quickly, but practice 
will soon make perfect and you will find that 
you keep the glider on an even keel almost 
by instinct. 

Remember that if you swing your body for- 
ward the centre of gravity will be changed 
toward the front and the glider will descend. 
On the other hand, swinging your body back- 
ward will tilt the forward edge of the ma- 
chine up, and the machine will rise, but de- 
crease in speed. Most beginners throw their 



SAILING ON THE LAND 283 

weight too far back, but with a little care the 
operator will learn just the angle to maintain 
in order to secure the longest glides under 
various conditions and will be able to adjust 
his balance in such a way as to increase or 
decrease the velocity of the glider at will. 

The principle of thus regulating a glide by 
varying your centre of gravity is illustrated 
in Fig. 25. At the point A', the operator 
starts to run down the slope for a glide, and 
the dotted line from A' to A" shows the line 
of flight first taken by his machine. If his 
weight is too far back the glider will con- 
tinue to rise, but will rapidly slow down and 
will drop to earth swiftly and from a consider- 
able height, as shown at B. On the other 
hand, if the operator throws his legs back 
when he reaches the point A", the machine 
will travel downward but with increasing 
speed to the spot indicated at C, when the 
operator, realising that he is approaching the 
earth, swings his legs forward, as shown at D, 
and the machine again rises and sinks gently 
to the ground from a low elevation. This is 
the safest and most pleasant kind of a glide, 
for a much longer flight is made and the low 
elevation prevents any danger of a bad fall. 
Always bear in mind that a gust of wind 
from ahead will cause the glider to rise, while 



284 SAILING ON THE LAND 

a sudden wind from the rear will cause it to 
fall. Thus if you are gliding along and you 
feel a sudden wind from in front and the 
machine starts to " rear up," throw your legs 
back and your weight forward, while if the 
machine starts to dive and you feel a gust 
from behind, throw your legs forward and 
your weight back. 

Gliding is not difficult and any smart boy 
should be able to make long and enjoyable 
flights in a couple of hours' practice. Never, 
under any circumstances, attempt to make a 
glide from a house-top or other elevation. 
Nine times out of ten injury or death will 
result from such an attempt; you can get all 
the fun there is in gliding from a sloping 
hill-top. 



PART II 

WINTER 



CHAPTER XIV 

SNOW SPORTS 

The healthy, red-blooded out-of-doors boy 
enjoys the cold winter weather fully as much 
as the summer, and looks forward to his 
winter vacation with as much pleasure as to 
his summer playtime. When the country 
is covered deep in a mantle of snow there 
are a thousand-and-one things a boy may do 
for amusement. He may tramp through the 
silent woods, mysterious and strange in their 
white blankets, may trap and trail wild things 
for furs, may build snug winter camps, in 
which to sleep and loaf in comfort while 
raging blizzards howl outside; or he may 
spend days and nights coasting on the snowy 
hillsides. 

When all these things pall, there are still 
wonderful possibilities on frozen lakes, rivers 
or ponds where, shod with steel, one may 
skim with the speed of the wind across the 
glassy surface, sail with the rush of an ex- 
press train, in an ice-yacht or fish for pickerel 
and other finny creatures through the ice. 
Although the average boy knows so many 

287 



288 SNOW SPORTS 

ways of getting fun out of winter weather, 
yet there are numerous other winter sports 
which are comparatively unknown to the ma- 
jority of American boys, especially in the 
Eastern states. In Canada, and many parts 
of Europe, regular winter ice carnivals are 
held, and winter is considered the best of all 
seasons for merry-making and out-of-doors 
fun. In certain parts of our own country snow- 
shoeing, tobogganing and skiing are known 
and indulged in to some extent, but as a rule, 
the snowshoe and toboggan are considered 
more as necessities than as playthings, and 
the boys use bob-sleds, double-rippers and the 
common runner-sleds for the greater portion 
of their coasting. 

Perhaps the most exciting and healthiest 
of out-of-doors winter sports, — as well as the 
safest, — is ski-running. The Norwegian ski 
(pronounced " ske ") is a long, narrow 
wooden snowshoe, quite different from the 
common Indian snowshoe of Canada and 
our northern states. The American shoe is 
an oval or racket-shaped affair of netting, 
made from rawhide stretched over a light 
wooden frame, and is designed to prevent the 
wearer from sinking too deeply into soft 
snow. The ski, on the other hand, is a mere 
runner of polished wood, which is not in- 



SNOW SPORTS 289 

tended to prevent the wearer from sink- 
ing, so much as to enable him to glide rap- 
idly over the surface of crusted or hard 
snow^. 

Any boy who is at all accustomed to using 
carpenter's tools can make a pair of skis. 
Select some straight-grained, tough, elastic 
wood, such as white-ash, hickory, cedar, 
tupelo or sycamore, and get out two pieces 
six or eight feet long, from four to six inches 
wide and about an inch thick. Have these 
two pieces as nearly alike in weight and grain 
as possible and find which way the grain runs. 
Mark the end from which this runs and con- 
sider that the front. A little more than half 
the length back from this make another 
mark which will serve to show where the foot 
will rest when the skis are complete. For 
six inches on either side of this mark leave 
the ski the full thickness, and from these 
points work down the upper surface of each 
ski toward the two ends. This should be 
done so that the ski thins gradually from the 
full thickness at the foot-rest to about one- 
quarter of an inch at the front end and half 
an inch at the rear (Fig. i). The upper edges 
should be rounded or bevelled off. The thin 
front ends should now be bent sharply up for 
six or eight inches, and this is easily done by 



290 



SNOW SPORTS 



dipping the ends in boiling water and bending 
them over any convenient object, where they 
are to be left in place until dry. A ladder is 




<d 




very good for this purpose, as shown in 
Fig. 2. Both skis should be steamed and 
bent at the same time to have them exactly 
alike. When thoroughly dry they should be 
sandpapered and smoothed as much as pos- 



SNOW SPORTS 291 

sible and thoroughly rubbed with linseed oil. 
The bottoms are also improved by rubbing in 
paraffin or bayberry wax. The next thing 
is to arrange a foot-rest. There are many 
ways of doing this, but the object in all is 
to arrange some sort of fastening which will 
bind the foot to the ski, leave room for 
bending the toe and at the same time be 
capable of instant release. Personally I con- 
sider a light cleat fastened across the ski at 
the back of the heel, a stout strap screwed 
on across the toe and a second strap (adjust- 
able with buckle) passing up from the heel 
and over the instep, the best arrangement 
(Fig. 3). 

In Norway the skis usually have the rear 
end rounded or pointed, but I could never see 
any advantage in this, and consider a smooth, 
square end far more serviceable. A steering- 
pole must be provided, but as any stout, 
strong stick will serve for this purpose a de- 
scription, or directions for its construction, 
are not required. Professional ski-runners use 
a pole provided with a hoop or wheel-like ar- 
rangement a short distance from the tip, and 
this, when plunged into the snow, acts as a 
brake. To the beginner, however, this proves 
an added impediment and it is best to learn 
without it. When I first learned to use skis 



292 SNOW SPORTS 

I used no pole whatever, and I must con- 
fess that although falls were numerous, I have 
always enjoyed running without a pole far 
more than with one. 

Having made your skis, the next thing is 
to learn to use them, and printed directions 
in this matter will be of no value and will only 
confuse. Try your skis on the level first. 
When you have learned to shuffle along with- 
out tripping yourself, or falling down, try 
sliding down some small, smooth hill free 
from rocks or other obstacles. The first 
hill should not be over fifty yards long and 
with a gentle slope. Even on such a place 
}/ou will find plenty of falls and tumbles, but 
once you learn to master your skis no hill 
will be too steep or too long, and skating, 
coasting and all your old winter sports will be 
quickly abandoned in favour of this new and 
exhilarating pastime. When you are thor- 
oughly at home on your skis you may attempt 
ski-jumping. This is a wonderful sport and 
an expert has been known to jump over one 
hundred feet through the air with a descent 
of more than sixty feet. In jumping, a place 
called a " take-off " is built some little dis- 
tance from the bottom of a hill. This take-off 
is merely a wall of packed snow with its top 
moulded to the slope of the hill and its outer 



SNOW SPORTS 293 

edge sheer. The wall for a beginner should 
not be over a foot high and should be grad- 
ually added to as your skill increases. Slid- 
ing rapidly down the hill and reaching the 
take-off, the ski-runner shoots out into space 
and, if successful, lands easily and softly upon 
the snow some distance below and continues 
on his course. In Scandinavia ski-jumping 
is a favourite sport and regular contests are 
held. The take-offs are often five feet or more 
in height, and the impetus acquired by the 
run down the high mountain-side, carries the 
jumper through the air far above the heads 
of the spectators, and with extended arms, 
flying scarf and whistling skis he soars 
through the air like some huge bird. 

In fact skis are sometimes called " The 
Wooden Wings of Norway." In Scandinavia 
and in some parts of our own country skis are 
used for other things besides sport and pleas- 
ure. In the mountains of many Western 
states all travelling during the winter months 
is done on skis, while Uncle Sam depends en- 
tirely upon the ski runners to carry the mails 
to outlying villages and towns. 

In Norway and Sweden skis form a regular 
portion of the army equipment, and Nor- 
wegian soldiers often cover fifty miles a day 
on skis without fatigue, whereas without 



294 SNOW SPORTS 

them scarcely any progress could be made 
through the deep snow drifts. 

Toboggans 

Another splendid winter sport that is all 
too little known to American boys is tobog- 
ganing. Toboggans are used all through 
Canada and our northern states, both for 
pleasure and for transporting loads across the 
snow-covered land, but over the greater part 
of the country they are practically unknown. 
Tobogganing bears some resemblance to ski- 
ing, for the toboggan is in reality nothing 
more than a number of skis fastened side by 
side or, — looking at it from another point of 
view, — the ski is like a section of a toboggan 
worn on the foot. 

Toboggans are just as easy to make as are 
skis, and any boy can readily make one which 
will provide no end of winter fun. 

The first thing is to select tough, springy 
wood with a smooth clear grain. Hickory, ash, 
white cedar or spruce will do, but in my opin- 
ion there is nothing quite so satisfactory as 
good, clear, second-growth hickory. The lum- 
ber should consist of a number of thin, narrow 
boards about three or four inches wide and 
about three feet longer than you wish your 



SNOW SPORTS 295 

finished toboggan to be, with some heavier 
strips about three inches wide and M of an 
inch thick. The thin long pieces will form 
the toboggan proper and their thickness may 
be anywhere from J4 to 5^ of an inch, but 
for the best results J^ is a good thickness. 

The most difficult thing to accomplish in 
making a toboggan is to bend the strips of 
wood to form the curved shape of the sled. 
It is possible to secure a curve by steaming 
the wood and bending it around a post or 
between the rungs of a ladder, as described 
for skis, but far better results can be obtained 
by making a regular form of wood. To do 
this saw two pieces of plank in the shape 
shown in Fig. 4, and nail or screw cleats 
across the edges, as shown in the illustration 
at A. Screw this form securely to the floor 
or wall and fasten a piece (B) as shown, 
leaving a narrow space at C just wide 
enough to insert the ends of the boards to be 
bent. When the boards are softened by 
steaming or soaking in hot water, insert the 
ends in the opening C and bend backwards 
slowly and carefully until they lie evenly over 
the curve. Fasten them in position by lashing 
them down, or by cleats placed across them 
and nailed to the form, and leave undisturbed 
until thoroughly dry. No doubt you will 



296 



SNOW SPORTS 





break, split or crack quite a number of the 
boards, and for this reason it is best to have 
several extra boards on hand. Still better re- 
sults may be obtained if you provide strips 
of thin steel or sheet iron the width of the 



SNOW SPORTS 297 

boards and long enough to extend over the 
curve of the form. By placing a strip over 
each board and bending the board by press- 
ing on the iron, the boards may be bent v^ith- 
out any danger of breaking. It is best to 
bend all the boards at one time to insure an 
even curve, but if you desire you can bend 
each board separately and in this v^ay can use 
a narrow^er form and only one strip of steel or 
iron (Fig. 5). 

After the boards are bent and dry, lay them 
side by side on the floor and v^^ith the curved 
ends evenly placed. Lay a cross-piece of the 
heavier stuff across the boards and screw it 
to each board v^ith screw^s that are not long 
enough to penetrate the lov^er side of the 
bottom boards. Place one of these cross- 
pieces close to the curve and another near 
the rear end (Fig. 6). Betv^een these tv^o 
cleats several other cross-pieces should be fast- 
ened, the number depending upon the size of 
the toboggan. As a rule the cleats should be 
spaced about eighteen inches apart. They 
may be either screw^ed or lashed in place, but 
the ones at front and rear should always be 
screwed. Indian toboggans have the cross- 
pieces lashed to the runner-boards with 
moose-hide and for this reason they are par- 
ticularly easy riding and swift. Factory-made 



298 SNOW SPORTS 

toboggans are usually screwed, nailed or 
riveted together and, as a rule, are bumpy, 
stiff and hard riding. I have found that a 
toboggan made w^ith the boards wired to the 
cross-pieces with tough copper wire is very 
easy, swift and strong, but care should be 
taken to have the under side smooth and to 
have the wires run with the grain of the 
wood and to have it beneath the surface by 
cutting small grooves for it to rest in. When 
all the cleats are in position and fastened, 
you should place a stout cleat across the 
outer surface of the extreme end of the curve, 
and with its ends extending a couple of inches 
on either side. From these ends strong raw- 
hides or wires should extend to the first cleat 
on the bottom, as shown in Fig. 7. These 
thongs should be tightened up until they 
bend the curve down slightly, and the best 
way to accomplish this is to draw them as 
tight as possible, make them fast and then 
have a friend sit on the curve, and as his 
weight springs it down, twist the thongs until 
you can just slip the loops over the ends of 
the cross-piece (Fig. 8). The thongs may 
be fastened to screw-eyes in a cross-cleat, but 
it is better to have them run clear through 
to the bottom where they may be sunk into 
grooves, as shown in the cut. 



SNOW SPORTS 299 

The toboggan is now complete, save for 
finishing and hand-rails. The bottom should 
be sandpapered as smooth as possible, oiled 
and given a v^ax polish, and the hand-rails 
may be of stout rope led through screv^-eyes 
set in the cross-pieces. The entire affair, 
when finished, should appear as in Fig. 9. 
Every different Indian tribe and nearly every 
white manufacturer have a certain curve and 
shape to their toboggans and the exact form 
is not material, as long as the curved end is 
high enough and rounded enough to ride over 
drifts or hummocks, and throw off the snow. 

Toboggans have a great advantage over 
sleds, inasmuch as they can be used on soft 
snow where a sled is useless, while on a 
light crust they will glide over the surface 
without breaking through, when an ordinary 
sled would cut the crust at once. They are 
far safer than sleds or rippers, for their light 
weight and all-wood construction renders 
them safe in case of a spill, and their broad 
bearing surface resting on the top of the 
snow allows them to be easily skewed or 
swung around, in case of danger. The tobog- 
gan is easily steered and handled, the steers- 
man usually sitting at the rear with one foot 
extended and the toe of this foot, dug into 
the snow on one side or the other, regulates 



300 SNOW SPORTS 

the course of the toboggan. In hard or crusty 
snow, however, it is far better to sit wholly 
upon the toboggan and steer by means of 
short, pointed sticks held in the hands. 

Toboggans are splendid things for carry- 
ing loads across country over deep snow, and 
every country boy who traps, hunts or has 
to carry anything from place to place in 
winter time, should provide himself with to- 
boggan and skis. In this way he can easily 
bring heavy loads for many miles without 
being overtired, and whenever a down-grade 
is reached he can slide gaily to the bottom 
without effort, and a tramp after wood, or to 
the village store for supplies, — which would 
prove hard work under ordinary conditions, — 
will become a pleasure and recreation if a to- 
boggan and skis, or snowshoes, are his com- 
panions. 

Snow Snakes 

Throwing Snow Snakes is a favourite pas- 
time with many of the northern Indians, but 
it is a game almost unknown to white boys. 
The snow snake is a long, narrow, polished 
runner of hard wood, with the forward end 
curved up like a ski. The rear end is notched 
to receive the finger, and in use the snow 



SNOW SPORTS SOI 

snake is thrown forward close to the ground. 
If well made and properly thrown, a snow 
snake will speed across the snow like a living 
thing, and will travel a remarkable distance. 
A number of boys with these playthings may 
hold contests and strive to see who can throw 
a snake the farthest. If the throwers have 
skis or snowshoes it will add to the sport. 
It is very fascinating to throw the snakes and 
watch them speed across the smooth snow, 
rising to each little hummock or drift, sway- 
ing gently from side to side and seeming to 
gather increased speed as they travel with 
their upraised forward end looking like the 
head and neck of a real serpent. 

The success of a snow snake depends upon 
the proportions, size and finish of the snake, 
and the only way to determine the very best 
form and proportions is to experiment. Snow 
snakes are so cheaply and easily made that 
every boy should have several, and in this 
way you will soon find that while one will 
go better on hard snow, another will be better 
on soft snow; some will travel faster than 
others, while still others will be steadier and 
against a wind will outrun their more speedy 
competitors. To make a snow snake, select 
a piece of smooth even-grained hickory or 
ash and bend the end in a curve. Smooth and 



302 SNOW SPORTS 

polish the lower surface until like glass, and 
cut a notch in the rear end for your finger. 
The curved front end may be carved or orna- 
mented to imitate some bird, animal or 
reptile, and the upper surface may be painted 
in bright colours to make the snake easier to 
find in the snow. A shallow groove cut in 
the bottom of the snake will make it travel 
straighter, while snakes with the front end 
slightly wider than the rest will often prove 
very fast and steady. Every boy who is fond 
of winter sports should have snow snakes, 
and while it may sound like a very simple and 
childish sport, you will be surprised to find 
that throwing the snow snake is really very 
interesting and requires considerable skill. 
Several forms and styles of snow snakes are 
shown in Fig. lo. 

Snowshoes 

One often sees directions for making snow- 
shoes, but to make a really practical and 
serviceable pair of snowshoes is quite beyond 
the capabilities of most boys. To select the 
wood, bend it into the proper shape and 
net in the rawhide strands, requires a great 
deal of practice, and can only be accomplished 
by watching some old snowshoe maker at 



SNOW SPORTS 303 

his work. Barrel hoops and belt lacings do 
not make good snowshoes and it is a waste 
of time to fool with such things. Makeshift 
snowshoes which will enable a person to 
travel over deep snow can be made, but such 
shoes are useful only in an emergency and 
are clumsy, heavy and ungainly. To make 
such shoes, two pieces of light tough wood 
are bent into half-ovals and lashed together, 
as shown in Fig. ii, with cross-pieces or 
spreaders — to form the frame of each shoe. 
The openings are then filled in by pieces of 
hide, leather or even cloth stretched across 
the frames with cord, roots, thongs or other 
material. The finished shoes appear as in 
Fig. 12, and will easily support a boy or man 
on soft snow, which is impassable without 
some form of snowshoe. If you wish really 
good snowshoes by all means purchase them 
ready-made, but you will find skis quite as 
useful and a great deal more fun, save in 
very soft light snow. Wherever there is a 
crust or the snow " packs " well, skis may 
be used, and skiing is far easier and faster 
than snowshoeing, and in many localities skis 
have almost entirely superseded the American 
snowshoes for winter travelling. 



CHAPTER XV 

ICE SPORTS 
Making and Sailing Ice Boats 

Wherever there are large bodies of water 
which freeze over with thick ice in winter, 
ice boating is the most exciting and exhilarat- 
ing of winter sports. Ice boats may be made 
in any size from little, simple affairs that any 
boy can knock together in a few hours, to 
great white-winged racing yachts, costing 
hundreds of dollars. It is not an expensive or 
a difficult matter for a boy to build a service- 
able and practical ice boat and one of the 
prize-winning yachts a few years ago was 
built by a couple of boys at a cost of less 
than fifteen dollars. This boat carried three 
hundred square feet of sail and with it the 
owners won a cash prize of fifty dollars in 
gold. 

The size and proportions of an ice boat are 
varied to suit the ideas of the builder, and 
the only portions which a boy cannot make 
for himself are the steel runners and other 
hardware. In a general way the hull of an 

304 



ICE SPORTS 305 

ice boat consists of a frame or skeleton much 
like that of a kite in general shape. The 
" backbone " consists of a strong, solid timber, 
flattened at the stern and pointed at the bow, 
but two timbers bent in a curve and fastened 
together by cross-braces may be used instead 
and will be even stronger and stiffer than the 
single piece (Fig. i). At one-third of the 
distance from the forward or bow end is the 
cross-piece to which the runners are attached. 
This cross-piece consists of two beams or 
boards about two-thirds as long as the back- 
bone, to which they are firmly and immovably 
attached; one piece being placed above and the 
other below the centre timber and with the 
extremities then bent together and bolted 
securely (Fig. 2). The mast is set where the 
cross-pieces and backbone join and at the 
outer ends of the cross-pieces the forward 
runners are fastened. On large boats the 
runners should be made especially for the 
purpose and should be fastened to strong 
wooden *' shoes " bolted to the cross-piece. 
On small or medium-sized boats old wooden- 
topped skates may be used for runners, the 
wooden part being bolted directly to the 
runner arms (Fig. 3). The rudder is an exact 
duplicate of the forward runners, but is placed 
at the extreme stern of the backbone and is 



306 



ICE SPORTS 



arranged so that it can be turned readily by 
means of a tiller (Fig. 4). The cockpit should 
be merely a shallow wooden tray or a plat- 



■7^ 


— ^^^^^^-J^ 


Fio.7 






form with rails about it, and should be built on 
the backbone near the stern. Care should be 
taken not to have the cockpit too wide, the 
average width being from two to five feet, 
according to the size of the craft and its 



ICE SPORTS 307 

height above the ice. The length of the cock- 
pit is optional with the builder, but the for- 
ward end should not extend nearer the bow 
than the cross-piece. Any form of sail may 
be used for an ice boat, but the lateen is 
probably the handiest and most satisfactory. 
The '' leg-of-mutton," '' sprit," '' fore-and- 
aft " or " lug " sails are all excellent, however, 
and if you own a sailboat you can use the 
sail and rigging for your ice boat during the 
winter. In small ice boats the mast will be 
stiff enough without stays, but in the larger 
craft side-stays and a fore-stay will be re- 
quired. For safety and lots of fun there 
is nothing better than the Catamaran ice 
boat. This consists of four pieces of 2 x 4 
inch timbers, each eight feet in length and 
bolted or nailed into a square frame, braced 
by boards or timbers across the corners. 
Runners constructed of old skates are fast- 
ened to each of the four corners. Those 
at the forward end should be immovable, 
while those aft should be pivoted and fastened 
parallel by rods or sticks so that both runners 
will turn with a single tiller (Fig. 5). The 
mast is stepped in the forward cross-piece, as 
shown, while the cockpit should be built 
across the stern and should be just wide 
enough to hold two or three boys lying close 



308 ICE SPORTS 

together. Such a craft is almost impossible 
to capsise, and yet is capable of surprising 
speed. 

Another form of small ice boat may be 
built from old sleds, and while this is not so 
fast as the others and is apt to slide sideways 
on very smooth ice, yet on rough " snow ice " 
or even on a hard crust it will furnish lots of 
fun at very little expense. 

The backbone of this boat consists of a 
plank two inches thick, ten feet long and from 
six to ten inches wide. The cross-piece is 
also of two-inch stuff and of the same width 
as the backbone, but only eight feet in length. 
The two pieces are firmly bolted or nailed 
together, as shown in Fig. 6, and are braced 
with 4x1 inch pieces, six feet in length, as 
illustrated. The forward runners consist of 
the two halves of a sled sawed in two length- 
wise and screwed onto the ends of the cross- 
piece. A block of 2 X 3 inch or 3 x 3 inch tim- 
ber should be screwed or bolted to the top 
and side-piece of each half of the sled to 
stiffen them before placing them in position. 
The steering runner may be made from the 
runner of a sled, but a skate fastened^ to a 
wooden shoe will grip the ice better. The 
tiller post may be made of iron by a black- 
smith or it may be of hard wood attached 



ICE SPORTS 309 

to the rudder, as shown. The post should 
pass through a smooth round hole in the 
stern of the backbone and a thick block 
should be bolted thereto, to give the post a 
firm bearing (Fig. 7). The mast is stepped 
as usual where cross-piece and backbone join 
and a small cockpit should be built near the 
stern. 

Scooters 

Scooters or '' scoots " are a form of ice boat 
used on southern Long Island and in other 
places and designed to sail either on water 
or on ice. Scooters are really sharpie- or 
skiff-like boats without a stem or stern-post, 
and with both ends rounded up and with 
runners near the bow and on the rudder. A 
good size for a small scooter is twelve feet 
long by four feet wide and with a centre- 
board, rudder and rigging exactly like an or- 
dinary water-going boat. On the forward 
portion of the hull two iron shoes are bolted, 
each twenty-five inches long by an inch in 
width and arranged as shown in Fig. 8 A. 
The rudder is of heavy sheet iron and is so 
hung that it supports the stern of the boat 
when on ice (Fig. 8 B). Another and more 
easily handled form of scooter is a scow-like 



810 



ICE SPORTS 



affair about twelve feet in length, five feet in 
width and fourteen inches deep. Scooters are 
not so fast nor so easily handled as real ice 
boats, but they have the advantage of being 
amphibious. If the ice is broken or there 
are open spaces of water, a scooter may sail 



<^=^ 




just as well as when the ice is one broad, 
smooth expanse. When the queer craft 
reaches the edge of the ice it slides into the 
water, the centreboard is dropped and the 
boat sails gaily along until the next ice is 
reached. The centreboard is then hauled 
up and the scooter slides up onto the ice and 
continues its course over the surface. 

Any boy that is handy with carpenter's 
tools can make a good scooter out of pine, 
cypress or spruce boards, and an old skiff, 



ICE SPORTS 311 

sharpie or punt may be easily converted into 
one of these ice-water boats by removing the 
perpendicular stem and carrying the bottom 
up in a curve. 

Sailing Ice Boats 

A great many people have an idea that ice 
boats are extremely dangerous, for they see 
pictures of the yachts sailing at a giddy 
angle on two runners and apparently about to 
tip over. In many cases the same people 
would not hesitate to sail in a real yacht with 
lee decks awash and at an angle a great deal 
sharper than the ice boat assumes. The 
reason that ice yachts appear to tip so much 
is because the windward side lifts instead of 
the leeward side sinking. It is true that 
accidents do happen in ice boats, but such 
occurrences areoftener due to carelessness and 
a desire for speed than to inherent qualities 
of the boat; an ice yacht at moderate speed 
seldom upsets, and if it does, a few cuts or 
bruises are about the worst injuries that one 
receives; there is no danger of drowning as 
in a sailing yacht on water. Ice yachts are 
probably the swiftest of all craft and will 
travel faster than the wind itself. Even on 
thin or cracked ice there is little danger, for 



312 ICE SPORTS 

the craft moves so rapidly that there is no 
time for the ice to give way, and the v^ind 
supports the greater portion of the boat's 
weight. A large ice yacht will often pass 
safely over air holes, cracked ice or thin ice 
that would not support a man or boy skater. 
In many cases the boats lift entirely clear of 
the ice, and an adept will often drive his boat 
across an open space five or six feet wide 
merely by giving a certain twist to the tiller 
so that the runners are lifted clear and the 
craft actually flies across the opening in the 
ice. 

The cold is intense when sailing an ice 
yacht, and you should bundle up in the heav- 
iest garments you can secure. Particularly 
should the feet be protected, for they are not 
used in ice yachting and remain almost im- 
movable as one snuggles down in the cock- 
pit. Thick felt boots, fur-lined moccasins or a 
foot warmer should be provided and heavy 
blankets or fur robes should be wrapped about 
the occupants of the cockpit. Sailing an 
ice yacht is quite different from sailing a real 
boat, for the skipper must depend almost 
wholly upon himself, and even in the largest 
yachts there are seldom over two in the crew. 
Passengers may be carried for ballast, and 
when racing or in a strong wind they are 



ICE SPORTS SIS 

expected to crawl out on the runner-arms to 
maintain the balance of the craft. 

An ice boat is far more responsive to a 
touch of the helm or an alteration of the sail 
than a water boat, and a slight mistake or 
rough handling will often result in disaster, 
and for this reason every beginner should 
learn to sail in very light airs or with a 
closely-reefed sail. After a few trials you 
will get "the hang" of sailing on ice and 
will find it the king of winter sports, and 
ordinary skating will have no charms, and 
will seem slow and dull work in comparison 
to flying over the glassy surface of the ponds 
like a great, swooping bird. 

Skate-Sails 

If you have ever skated across a pond or 
lake or along a river with a stiff wind blow- 
ing, you know how easily and rapidly you 
can glide before the breeze by merely spread- 
ing your coat and arms to the wind. The 
sensation is fine and with a little trouble and 
work you can turn this slow coasting into the 
speed of an express train and instead of 
merely drifting along before the wind, you 
can tack against it, run across it or speed 
before it at your will. All this is readily 



314 ICE SPORTS 

accomplished by the use of skate-sails, and 
why these simple and delightful accessories 
of skating are not more widely known and 
extensively used, is a mystery. In Denmark, 
Holland and other European countries, skate- 
sails are as common in winter as sailboats in 
summer, and the skate sailors skim from 
place to place over the frozen canals, lakes 
and fiords in every direction as easily and 
far more swiftly than it is possible with real 
boats during the summer months. 

There are many forms of skate-sails in use 
and each has its ' advantages and disadvan- 
tages, but the simplest is usually the best for 
the beginner and the simplest of all skate- 
sails is the triangular style, known as the 
"Lake Erie," "Dan Beard" or "Marcus 
Model." This sail consists of two light spars 
(usually bamboo), and a triangular sail the 
shortest side of which is laced to the short 
spar. The apex of the sail is provided with 
a loop to fit snugly over the end of the long 
spar and the other end is made fast and 
the sail stretched tight by means of a lanyard 
fastened to the centre of the short spar or 
" mast." By loosening this lanyard and slip- 
ping the loop from the end of the long spar 
the sail may be rolled up and easily carried. 
The construction of this sail is so simple that 



ICE SPORTS 



315 




316 ICE SPORTS 

detailed directions are hardly necessary. The 
size depends upon the size and strength of 
the user, the speed at which you wish to 
travel and the weight of prevailing winds. 
If the long spar is nine feet long and the 
short mast seven feet in length it will be 
large enough for beginners. The details of 
construction are plainly shown in Fig. 9, and 
the manner of holding it is shown in Fig. 10. 

Another type of sail, known as the '' St. 
Vincent," is illustrated in Fig. 11. This is a 
fast and simple rig, and in use the long spar 
is carried like a gun over the skater's shoul- 
der with the " mast " resting against the back. 
The '' Danish Rig," Fig. 12, is a great fa- 
vourite in Europe and has the advantage that 
it may be " reefed," or the area decreased in 
hard winds, merely by folding down the top- 
sail or upper part of the rig. It is, however, 
a rather difficult affair to handle and requires 
considerable practice in order to tack and go 
about with it. Moreover it is fastened to the 
skater's body, which is an objectionable 
feature to many. 

The " Norton " sail is a two-sailed affair, 
and while not as speedy as the large single 
rigs, it has the great advantage that the user 
can see in all directions and thus avoid colli- 
sions or bad places in the ice. If the tv 



ICE SPORTS 317 

poles are lo feet long and the cross-pieces are 
H inch in diameter and 4>^ feet long, the 
sails will be large enough for any boy. 
Bamboo is excellent material to use in mak- 
ing this sail and good bamboo fish-poles may 
be employed, using the entire poles for the 
long spars (binding them with the butt end 
of one to the small end of the other) and 
splitting the poles up for the shorter pieces. 
Light, clear-grained spruce is just as good 
as bamboo and a neater job can be made 
with it. Near the ends of the cross-pieces 
metal buttons or knobs should be placed, 
and in the centre of each piece a cleat should 
be lashed, as shown in the illustration Fig. 13. 
The sails should be made of strong cotton, 
measuring four feet across the diagonal, and 
well bound with strong tape. At the corners 
small rings or loops should be placed. The 
sails are attached to the cross-yards by slip- 
ping the rings or loops over the knobs or 
buttons. The main spars are then sprung 
apart and the cleats slipped between them. 
The sails are then stretched taut by lashing 
the outer ends to the extremities of the long 
spars and drawing the two inner ends to- 
gether by a lanyard through the rings or 
loops, as shown. In making any kind of a 
skate-sail, double-stitch and hem all edges 



318 ICE SPORTS 

and re-enforce the corners with a piece of 
cloth sewed on. 

No particular skill is required in order to 
use a skate-sail, but of course the sailor must 
have some knowledge of how to skate and 
also of tacking and sailing. By altering the 
position of the sail you may readily sail in 
any direction, but you must bear in mind that 
you must always have the sail between your 
body and the wind and must preserve your 
balance by leaning against the sail. In using 
the Lake Erie model, the sailor " tacks " by 
running dead into the wind, letting go of the 
long spar when the sail flutters and swinging 
it over your head as you come about. Then 
grasp the spar on the other side and dart off 
on the next tack. To stop with this rig, 
either shift the position of the sail until the 
mast is close to your body, let go of the 
boom and let the sail shake or come up into 
the wind and stop by means of your skates. 

Any boy can readily make one or another 
of these forms of skate-sails and can have 
lots of sport with them, for even on ice that 
is too soft, too rough or too snow-covered to 
afford good skating, you can skim swiftly 
and easily by means of the sails; they trans- 
form one to an individual ice boat, and you 
will find ordinary skating unattractive work 



ICE SPORTS 319 

after using a skate-sail. Little muscular ex- 
ertion is required in skate-sailing; all one 
has to do is to lean easily against the sail, 
keep his feet and turn and manoeuvre as his 
fancy wills. 

Fishing Through the Ice 

Most boys think of fishing as a summer 
pastime, but in reality one may obtain some 
of the best fishing in the dead of winter. 
In many of our northern and eastern states 
fishing through the ice is a regular occupation 
for many fishermen. If one is skating or 
sailing with skate-sails, it is an easy matter 
to attend to numerous set lines for pickerel 
and other fish. If on the other hand you wish 
to fish through the ice as a means of profit 
or pastime you may build little shanties on 
runners and sit over a hole in the ice and 
fish comfortably for hours at a time. The 
shanty may be of canvas stretched over a 
light wooden frame (Fig. 14), or it may be 
4)uilt of thatch, wattled reeds or even of tarred 
roofing-paper tacked to a frame of light 
boards. If a small stove or even an oil or 
alcohol lamp is placed in the shelter, the in- 
terior may be made quite warm and com- 
fortable. The floor of the shanty may be an 



320 



ICE SPORTS 



Open framework or it may be boarded over and 
a hole cut through the centre. In the latter 
case the water and the fish in it may be quite 
plainly seen through a hole cut through the 
ice beneath the movable hut, and in this way 
it is possible to spear or snare fish which 




are attracted to the spot by bait dropped in 
the water at the end of a line. 

The commonest and most interesting 
method of ice fishing, however, is to cut 
numerous small roundish holes through the 
ice and in each one set a baited hook and 
line attached to a simple little contrivance, 
which automatically raises a red flag when 
a fish is hooked. These devices may be made 
of stiff wire, as shown in Fig. 15, or they may 



ICE SPORTS 321 

be constructed of two sticks tied loosely to- 
gether, as shown in Fig. i6. Do not trust to 
merely binding the sticks together, however; 
have a fork on the upright resting against 
the cross-piece, as shown, and be sure to have 
both sticks strong enough to withstand the 
pull of any fish that the line will hold. 

It is easy to set and attend several dozen 
such set-lines and enjoy skating at the same 
time and it is quite interesting and exciting 
to see the red flag bob up, and to dash to 
the spot, not knowing what you may find on 
the hook, — for muskrats, and even mink, are 
frequently captured on lines set in this man- 
ner for pickerel. 



ul^^^ 



